The opening of the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City was at the end of the 1920s. Scholars often note that the 1920s was a progressive era, and the museum helped with it being progressive. The museum’s origins were diverse because it was hiring racial and gender minorities, which would be considered unheard of during that era. Women and people from different backgrounds working at the museum helped cause the museum’s success. The museum’s original collection had a decent amount of contemporary art that was donated to, or purchased by, the museum. Art enthusiasts considered these paintings as new and revolutionary compared to typical art styles at the time. The MoMA currently sits as one of the most popular museums in New York and for art in general due to its success during the 1920s.

The original idea for the MoMA was in 1928 by three important women: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, Lillie P. Bliss, and Mary Quinn Sullivan, known collectively as “The Ladies”, who came up with the idea for the MoMA over lunch, as the story goes. On March 7, 1928, Lillie and Aldrich were at a social gathering in Jerusalem where apparently they came up with the idea.¹ They wanted a place where they could display the trendiest and newest art at that time, namely contemporary art. Abby Rockefeller wrote about why she wanted the museum in the first place, “I began to think of women whom I knew in New York City, who cared deeply for beauty and who bought pictures, women who would be willing, and had faith enough, to help start a museum of contemporary art.”² She wanted a place that she and other women would be able to experience and enjoy the arts. The Ladies were daughters and wives of some of America’s wealthiest families living in New York, with Abby being the daughter-in-law of John D. Rockefeller. “The Ladies” were able to pool together their resources along with inviting investors and succeeded in opening the MoMA on November 7, 1929. The founding director of the MoMA, Alfred H. Barr Jr. set a goal for the museum to be “the greatest museum of modern art in the world” by helping everyone, and not only art experts, to enjoy art by understanding it.³

The MoMA had a decently sized Board of Trustees that helped it during its first couple of years. Three major trustees who helped the MoMA during this time were A. Conger Goodyear, Paul J. Sachs, and Josephine Boardman Crane. A. Conger Goodyear was a railroad and lumber tycoonist who also was the MoMA’s first president. Goodyear had previous museum experience from working at the Buffalo Art Museum from 1912-1928. While working there at that time, he played fast and loose with the museum’s money to acquire artwork that the museum might not have acquired otherwise. His actions sparked some controversy among other trustees, which resulted in Conger being voted out of the Buffalo AKG Art Museum’s Board of Trustees.⁴ Aldrich Rockefeller wanted Conger to be president of MoMA due to his accomplishments at the Buffalo AKG Art Museum and his ability to acquire paintings that the MoMA probably could not. Paul J. Sachs was a professor at Harvard who helped finance the MoMA in its early years. As the Board was searching for a director of the museum, Sachs was the one to recommend one of his former students, Alfred H. Barr Jr. Sachs also donated to the museum some of his drawings from his early career. Josephine Boardman Crane helped the museum by donated her Russian art collection and also offered fiscal aid. Shortly before the grand opening of the MoMA, the Stock Market crash had just hit the world. But with the help of multiple trustees, the mere idea of the MoMA was not lost to the trash bin. Since all of the trustees came from rich families, they were able to provide help to the MoMA during this trying time.

The MoMA originally opened at a different location from where it currently stands. When the MoMA opened, it was located at the Heckscher Building on 730 Fifth Avenue, not on 11 West 53rd Street, which is two streets away from the Heckscher Building. The Heckscher Building was home to the MoMA for 3 years, until 1932 when they moved to a different building. The MoMA was located in the Heckscher Building for multiple reasons. The Heckscher Building was one of the very few skyscrapers (it would not be considered a skyscraper by today’s standards) in New York City and it had the reputation of being “The Tower of Trade.” Other famous establishments also were renting floors on the Heckscher Building, so the moniker had precedence. The fact that the Heckscher Building could be easily seen from anywhere in New York City, along with its prestigious reputation, made the location perfect for the MoMA.

The opening of the MoMA was not all sunshine and rainbows because John D. Rockefeller Jr. did not like Modern art. John D. Rockefeller Jr. was the son of John D. Rockefeller and husband to Aldrich Rockefeller. Although John D. Rockefeller Jr. did like art and was an art collector who helped fund the Cloisters—a museum designed to collect Medieval Art—John D. Rockefeller Jr. simply disliked Modern Art. Even though Aldrich Rockefeller was the founder of MoMA and played a very important role in it, John D. Rockefeller Jr. chose not to support the MoMA in its initial years. Although John D. Rockefeller Jr. disliked Modern Art and avoided it the best he could, he did not try to prevent his wife from acquiring pieces of Modern Art and yet he never paid for them.⁵ John D. Rockefeller Jr. was a Baptist, and in the 1920s Baptists preferred not to deal with secular art like Modern Art of the era. John D. Rockefeller Jr. was a conservative, and conservatives often disliked Modern Art from that era because it was challenging traditional norms. Though John D. Rockefeller Jr. did donate to the MoMA, it was not until later in the 1940’s. And due to his funding, the MoMA was then moved to its modern location where it is still standing today.

The original MoMA gallery contained paintings by Vincent van Gogh, Georges Seurat, Paul Cézanne, and Paul Gauguin. When the MoMA was created, it was not able to afford the purchase of any artwork; so instead, they received donations of artwork. Alfred H. Barr wanted the MoMA to display newer pieces instead of older, which was difficult since most of the MoMA’s collections were already over one hundred years old. Alfred H. Barr got rid of the older paintings by stating “a torpedo moving through time, its nose the ever advancing present, its tail the ever receding past of 50 to 100 years ago.”⁶ Alfred H. Barr was a Harvard professor who also loved contemporary art. During his time at Harvard, he helped to run the Harvard Society of Contemporary Art. In July, 1929, he was interviewed for the position of founding director, and on August 12, 1929, was accepted for the position.⁷ As its director, Barr sent Anson Goodyear—Anson being a member of the Board of Trustees—to travel to Europe to collect six paintings by van Gogh, Seurat, Cezanne and Gauguin, whose exhibition was very successful for both Barr and the MoMA.⁸

Themes of the 1920s

The 1920s was an era that challenged the old traditional norms from the previous era, the Victorian era. The Victorian era held strict social and gendered norms that favored traditionalism and did not like feminism. After the conclusion of the First World War, America challenged Victorian thought by consuming the works of modernist philosophers. It sparked such ideas as the New Women, a rise of secular culture, pluralism, and an expansion of new ways of thinking. The MoMA embodied the rise of modernism in America by connecting many of these themes to the MoMA in some way.

Vincent van Gogh, Georges Seurat, Paul Cézanne and Paul Gauguin were deliberately chosen to be the MoMA’s first exhibit. The reason was because all four of these painters were impressionist painters who also helped revolutionize the art world. Impressionism as a form of art is described as capturing the sense of time passing by with the changing of lighting, where the subject is often something found in the modern world such as a building, a crowd of people, a pier, or a park. Impressionism came about from the rejection of a previous form of art, which was supposed to be the accepted standard for art: Neoclassicism and Romanticism. Both forms of art are very similar to each other, in that they are typically still images of important historical events and subjects. The difference between these two forms of art lie in their treatments of the subjects. Neoclassicism is a rigid form of art based on the Greco-Roman form of art and favors historical scenes. Romanticism is a similar form but focuses on nature and the subject’s emotions. Impressionism is a rejection of those forms, just as the 1920s was a rejection of the Victorian values and norms. These painters all influenced the discipline of impressionism. And because the MoMA chose to display these painters’ works as its first exhibits, it showed everyone that they were going to revolutionize the enjoyment of art and what a museum should display in their exhibits.

Abby Rockefeller was a very important component in the creation of the MoMA. Out of the three founding women, Abby Rockefeller created, actively participated in, and did the most amount of work for the MoMA. Unlike most other women during that era who may later step out of the spotlight after creating a museum or let go of that idea, Abby was different. Abby was a member of the Board of Trustees and also was the MoMA’s treasurer. Due to her work in the MoMA, she gained new titles and responsibilities throughout her years. When she worked at the MoMA, she was often a negotiator between Barr and Goodyear due to their disagreements. Elsewhere in Abby’s life, she was a women’s suffragist and helped women with their economic and social disadvantages.  She was a member and chairwoman of the Young Women’s Christian Association for twenty years, and donated large amounts of money to them.⁹ She used her privileged status to help underprivileged women to have better lives and advocated for women’s progress. These traits the Abby presented are similar to historian Lynn Dumenil’s interpretation of the New Women.¹⁰ The New Women challenges traditional gender norms established in the Victorian age. Common people who challenged these notions of normalcy were known as flappers and women suffragists. It is the same to say that Abby Rockefeller is associated with the New Women due to her challenging of traditional gender norms of the 1920s.

The MoMA did not just hire white people but was a diverse place of employment. Though technically hired in the early 30s, Soichi Sunami, a Japanese-American photographer, showed that the MoMA embraced the ideals of modernism and pluralism founded in the 1920s. Soichi Sunami was a photographer who was a member of the Seattle Art Club, participated in multiple exhibits, and studied under painter John Sloan.¹¹ Soichi Sunami was the living embodiment of the MoMA’s focus on diversity of the 1920s. In the 1920s, many groups of people experienced a cultural and economic boom. Japanese Americans were one of those groups, due to their tight-knit families, their focus on education, along with their support of each other out of poverty. Soichi was born in Japan but lived in New York City for a long time. His talent caused him to be recognized, with Aldrich Rockefeller asking him to work at the MoMA in 1930 due to his successful career.¹² This caused him to have a very successful forty-year long career working at the MoMA.

Conclusion

The MoMA was one of the last events that occurred at the end of the 1920s. It was a radical idea that came about due to the climate of the 20s. The MoMA’s existence challenged the traditional Victorian social norms by predominantly displaying impressionist art, by the founders of the MoMA being all women, and by hiring diverse people. These decisions caused the MoMA to be the embodiment of the themes of the 1920s. Since these themes were entrenched in the MoMA’s identity, they fueled the success of the MoMA in the late 1920s early 1930s and to become the very successful museum as we know it today.

1. Kate Walbert, “Lillie P. Bliss, ” in Inventing the Modern: Untold Stories of the Women Who Shaped The Museum of Modern Art, ed. Ann Temkin and Romy Sliver-Kohn, (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2024) 64 ︎
2. Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, “MoMA through Time,” MoMA, accessed Apr 21, 2026, https://www.moma.org/interactives/moma_through_time/1920/three-women-have-a-vision/. ︎
3. “The Museum of Modern Art history,” MoMA, accessed April 21, 2026, https://www.moma.org/about/mission-statement/history#:~:text=In%20the%20late%201920s%2C%20three,Its%20founding%20director%2C%20Alfred%20H. ︎
4. “A. Conger Goodyear” Buffalo AKG Art Museum, accessed April 30, 2026, https://buffaloakg.org/person/conger-goodyear ︎
5. David Rockefeller, interviewed by Sharon Zane, transcript, January 17 1991, The Museum Of Modern Art Oral History Program. https://buffaloakg.org/person/conger-goodyear ︎
6. Alfred H. Barr Jr. “Time” MoMA, accessed on April 21, 2026, https://www.moma.org/interactives/moma_through_time/1920/starting-a-collection-from-scratch/ ︎
7. Sybil Gordon Kantor, Alfred H. Barr, Jr., and the Intellectual Origins of the Museum of Modern Art, (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002) 211. ︎
8. Kantor, Origins of MoMA 190-214. ︎
9. “Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, 1874-1948,” Rockefeller Archive Center, accessed on March 31, 2026. https://rockarch.org/resources/about-the-rockefellers/abby-aldrich-rockefeller/
   ︎
10. Lynn Dumenil, Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 99. ︎
11. Kathy Muir, “Soichi Sunami,” Seattle Camera Club, accessed April 30, 2026, https://www.seattlecameraclub.com/soichi_sunami.html ︎
12. Muir, “Soichi Sunami,” Seattle Camera Club, accessed April 30, 2026, ︎

Bibliography and Suggested Resources

“A. Conger Goodyear.” Buffalo AKG Art Museum. accessed April 30, 2026.

“Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, 1874-1948.” Rockefeller Archive Center. accessed on March 31, 2026.

Barr, Alfred H. Jr. “MoMA through Time.” Museum of Modern Art . accessed on April 21, 2026.

Dumenil, Lynn. Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. (New York: Hill and Wang. 1995)

Kantor, Sybil Gordon. Alfred H. Barr, Jr., and the Intellectual Origins of the Museum of Modern Art. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002)

Muir, Kathy. “Soichi Sunami.” Seattle Camera Club. accessed April 30, 2026.

Rockefeller, Abby Aldrich. “MoMA through Time.” Museum of Modern Art. accessed Apr 21, 2026.

Rockefeller, David. interviewed by Sharon Zane, transcript, January 17 1991, The Museum Of Modern Art Oral History Program.

“The Museum of Modern Art history.” Museum of Modern Art. accessed April 21, 2026.

Walbert, Kate. “Lillie P. Bliss. ” in Inventing the Modern: Untold Stories of the Women Who Shaped The Museum of Modern Art. ed. Ann Temkin and Romy Sliver-Kohn. (New York: The Museum of Modern Art. 2024)

J Pelar

Josh Pelar is a History student at Ramapo College of New Jersey.

Discovering the Epidemic

Established as a Gold Rush town in the late 1800s, Nome, Alaska was home to roughly 1,800 people in 1925.¹ Only one of them was a physician. Dr. Curtis Welch first encountered a suspected childhood diphtheria case in October of 1924, however since no one else in the child’s family was exhibiting symptoms of the highly contagious respiratory disease he dismissed it as a cold. The child died two days later, a tragedy Welch ascribed to malnutrition. On January 20th, however, he officially diagnosed a seven year old Indigenous child with diphtheria after noticing the distinctive smell of the disease. The only antitoxin serum Welch had on hand had expired five years earlier. Realizing that the child was unlikely to recover, he risked administering the expired serum. Welch did not observe any negative reaction to the antitoxin. However, his attempt at treatment was too late, and the child passed away. By this point, Welch was able to conclude that the expired serum, while not harmful, would not be effective enough to fight off an epidemic. He immediately notified the mayor of Nome and they formed an emergency Board of Health to enforce a town-wide quarantine.²

The Call for Help

Welch sent a telegram asking for help from the Public Health Service in Washington, D. C. The group was able to quickly locate 300,000 units of antitoxin in Anchorage, but they immediately ran into the issue of transportation. There were two small planes in Anchorage, however they had been disassembled for the winter. Even if they were functional, they would have likely been useless in the below freezing temperatures and 60 to 70 mile per hour winds of the Alaskan winter.³ Instead, the Board of Health and territorial Governor Scott Bone chose to transport the serum via dog sled along the Alaskan Mail Route, also called the Iditarod Trail.⁴ This route normally took 20 days for one team to complete, but this would have been far too long for Nome to wait. Instead, they decided on a relay team of mushers and their dog teams. With the help of the United States Signal Corps, which operated the Alaskan telegraph system, the Board of Health contacted 20 men who agreed to transport the antitoxin to Nome.⁵ On January 27th, the serum was delivered by train from Anchorage to Nenana. There, 674 miles away from Nome, the race began.⁶

The Great Race for Mercy

From the station at Nenana, William “Wild Bill” Shannon and his team took off towards Tolovana. The 52 miles he covered marked the first leg of the serum run. The race involved 20 men and over 150 dogs in total.⁷ These teams travelled in blizzard conditions, and one musher, Charlie Evans, later claimed that he ran through -64 degree weather during his leg of the trip.⁸ There was a great amount of diversity amongst the mushers, with many European immigrants, native born white Americans, members of Indigenous Athabascan tribes, and men of blended ancestry running on the trail. Details about individual mushers and their experiences during the serum run can be found in the map below.

The Eyes of the Nation

The diphtheria epidemic and the serum run itself became sources of national interest. Newspapers across the country, from Hawai’i to Maine, covered the efforts to save Nome. People eagerly followed the plight in Alaska, and newspaper companies attempted to reach Welch for comment. He later told the Surgeon General that he destroyed all the wires sent to him by the press, saying “I am a physician, not a press agent.”⁹ Still, the newspapers continued to allow people from every state to follow what was happening in the farthest reaches of the American territory. All of this took place in a decade that saw an uptick in interest in national news.

Leonhard Seppala and Togo

In an effort to quicken the relay, Nome’s Board of Health decided to add more mushers to the trip after it had already begun. Leonhard Seppala, a Norwegian immigrant and famed dog sled racer, had already been sent from Nome to Nulato to pick up the serum. He had no way of knowing that more teams had been added or that the serum had actually passed through Nulato already. His trip to Nulato wound up being very fortunate, however, as Henry Ivanoff’s dogs picked up the scent of reindeer only half a mile outside of Shaktoolik. The dogs refused to return to the trail, so upon seeing Seppala Ivanoff waved him down and transferred the serum to him. Seppala, whose team was led by the famous Siberian Husky Togo, headed towards Golovin in Ivanoff’s place.¹⁰.

On his way to Golovin, Seppala had to choose between travelling along the coastline of Norton Bay, adding hours to the run, or cutting 20 miles across the frozen Bay itself. The ice could crack at any time, potentially stranding him and his team on an ice drift. Worse, they could be plunged into the icy sea. Seppala, whose daughter Seigrid had contracted and recovered from diphtheria a few years earlier, decided to cut across the Bay.¹¹

Togo led Seppala’s team in a straight line across Norton Bay. All the while, the man himself listened carefully for the sound of cracking ice, though he could not be sure it was not covered by the howling wind. At one point, the strong gusts blew the sled sideways, taking the dogs with it. Seppala righted them and moved on. Finally, late in the evening, he and his dogs arrived at the shore of Norton Bay. They had successfully crossed the frozen sea. Seppala and his team stopped to rest in the shelter of his friend’s igloo overnight. A few short hours after the team came ashore, the ice of the bay they had just run across began to break. ¹²

Seppala and his team left the next morning. When they finally arrived in Golovin, they had travelled over 91 miles on the serum run.¹³ This was the longest distance covered by any individual team. While this remains the official length credited to Seppala’s team, it does not include the trip they took from Nome to Shaktoolik. In total, the dogs had actually run 268 miles within two days.¹⁴

Gunnar Kaasen and Balto

Seppala transferred the serum to Charlie Olson in Golovin, who then travelled 25 miles to Bluff. There, he handed it off to Norwegian-born musher Gunnar Kaasen and his team, led by the Siberian Husky Balto. The vsibility was so poor that Kaasen nearly directed his team to run straight through a river. He was stopped only by Balto’s refusal to move forward. Not long after they rerouted around the river, Seppala and his team came to Topkop Hill. With a 600-foot summit and no path around it, all mushers dreaded the landmark. Seppala had to get out of his sled and push it from behind while his team pulled it up the hill. During this process Kaasen completely lost sensation in his face.¹⁵

After climbing up and subsequently sledding down Topkop Hill, Kaasen and his team continued on towards Point Safety. However, while passing through Bonanza flats, the intense winds flipped over Kaasen’s sled and pulled several of his dogs with it. After righting the sled, he realized that the serum had been knocked off in the crash. In the low visibility Kaasen had to remove his mittens and search through the snow with his bare hands. Eventually, he was able to find the package and secure it to the sled once more.¹⁶

Kaasen had initially been instructed to stop at Point Safety and transfer the antitoxin to Ed Rohn, who was chosen to run it the rest of the way to Nome. When he arrived, he noticed that the lights were out in the cabin. He realized that Rohn, who was not expecting Kaasen until the next morning, had gone to sleep. Kaasen debated waking Rohn to give him the serum. After considering how long it would take Rohn to prepare his team, and recognizing the dire conditions in Nome, Kaasen decided to bring the serum the final stretch himself.¹⁷

Arrival and Aftermath

Kaasen arrived in Nome at 5:30 in the morning on February 2nd, 1925. He knocked on Welch’s front door, waking him up while his dogs finally took a break. In five and a half days, 20 men and their dogs had covered 674 miles in blizzard conditions and delivered life-saving diphtheria antitoxin to a town on the verge of an epidemic.¹⁸

When Welch opened the package he was horrified to find that the 300,000 units of antitoxin were frozen solid. After radiogramming the Public Health Service, however, he was assured that it could be thawed and used effectively. He began treating victims immediately and on February 21st the epidemic was declared over and the quarantine lifted. It had been just over a month since Welch diagnosed the first case of diphtheria.¹⁹ The serum run had been successful, and Welch and his staff were able to effectively treat the disease.

The crisis faced in Nome spurred the government into action. The Public Health Service shipped a second batch of 1,100,000 antitoxin to Seward, Alaska on the S. S. Alameda. They were taken to Nenana by train, and from there they were transported to Nome by yet another dogsled relay. Many of the mushers that participated in the first serum run likely took part in the second, however because the country’s fascination with Nome died out after Kaasen’s arrival, their names were not recorded. In addition to the new shipment of serum, the epidemic pushed the Post Office to begin planning for an effective airmail service in Alaska. ²⁰ The diphtheria epidemic and the subsequent relay race to Nome sparked fundamental changes in how Alaska was connected to the contiguous United States.

The mushers themselves were rewarded for their efforts, with each one receiving $18.66 from a public donation fund. Additionally, the Territory of Alaska paid them $25 for each day that they were on the trail. Finally, the H. K. Mulford Company, the producer of the antitoxin, sent each of the mushers a medal and sent Gunnar Kaasen an additional $1,000.²¹ However, this reward, along with Kaasen’s overall involvement in the race, proved to be controversial.

The Battle for Credit

Kaasen’s decision to bypass Ed Rohn and deliver the serum himself is still debated. He claimed that he made this choice in order to get the serum to Nome as fast as possible, however Rohn, Leonhard Seppala, and some Nome residents felt that he wanted to earn the good publicity that came with his delivery. The $1,000 he received for his efforts did not help his case.²² What may have been more damaging, however, was the movie deal he signed by the end of the month.

At a time when movies were just beginning to become popular in America, Kaasen and Balto travelled to the contiguous United States on a press tour for their film. At the end of the tour they saw the dedication of the famed Balto statue erected in Central Park. Many claim that this is evidence of Kaasen’s desire for glory, however due to his introverted nature both at home and along the press tour, some argue that the Mayor of Nome may have pressured him into accepting the deal.²³ Regardless, Kaasen’s decision to take the serum to Nome himself and the lasting debate surrounding it demonstrate the questions surrounding glory in the race.

One man who always questioned Kaasen’s decision was Leonhard Seppala. For years, he remained angry that Balto was given the credit he felt belonged to his dog, Togo. After all, Togo and his team had covered more distance than any other team that participated in the run, including their treacherous trip across Norton Bay. Seppala was particularly upset when some newspapers falsely attributed Togo’s impressive run to Balto. In his memoir, Seppala wrote that:

“I hope I shall never be the man to take away credit from any dog or driver who participated in that run. We all did our best. But when the country was roused to enthusiasm over the serum run driver, I resented the statue to Balto, for if any dog deserved a special mention it was Togo.”

Salisbury, The Cruelest Miles, 248-249.

Significance

The Failures of Technology

The Nome serum run took place during a time of great technological improvements. Lynn Dumenil’s book The Modern Temper demonstrates this, including the 64% increase in industrialization over the decade as a whole. Both the chemical and automobile industries played a role in the technological boom of the 1920s.²⁴ The former had an important impact on the serum run, particularly because the H. K. Mulford Company manufactured the diphtheria antitoxin.²⁵ However, the transportation advancements that were dispersing throughout the mainland United States at this time, for example paved roads and cars, were not yet available in the more rural areas of the country. The serum run to Nome shows that in spite of recent improvements in transportation technology, these developments were not yet able to help those outside of the increasingly urban contiguous United States.

The Success of Syndicated News

While transportation improvements proved unable to affect the Nome serum run, improvements in newspaper technology drew people from all parts of the nation into following the race to Nome. Dumenil writes that “because of developments in technology and distribution, [newspapers] increasingly consisted of syndicated news information and photographs.”²⁶ This system consisted of a single news story being written and distributed to papers across the country. Dr. Welch’s account of the diphtheria epidemic, written a week after the serum arrived, is one example of this. He wrote an article for United Press that was sent to and published by newspapers all the way from Nebraska to New Jersey. This followed weeks of news coverage detailing Nome’s struggles, as newspapers from all 48 of the recognized states at that time, plus the territories of Alaska and Hawai’i, published stories about the dog sled relay. In addition to the increase in syndicated news, this shows the uptick in national news coverage that people were consuming during the 1920s.²⁷ People in every part of the country followed the serum run, regardless of how far they were from Alaska. Overall, in spite of transportation technology’s inability to assist in the race itself, advancements in newspaper technology during the 1920s allowed Americans to track what was happening in Nome.

Citations

Bibliography

• Alger, Anna. “100 Years After the Great Serum Run, Balto’s Legacy Endures.” Cleveland Museum of Natural History. January 23, 2025. Accessed March 18, 2026. https://www.cmnh.org/learn/science-blog/2025/01/23/100-years-after-the-great-serum-run-baltos-legacy-endures.
• Associated Press. “Diphtheria Rages at Nome, Alaska.” Olean Evening Herald (Olean, NY), January 28, 1925.
• Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang. 1995.
• Salisbury, Gay and Laney Salisbury. The Cruelest Miles: The Heroic Story of Dogs and Men in a Race Against an Epidemic. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 2003.
• Stokes, E. D. “The Race for Life.” Public Health Reports 111, no. 3. (1996): 272-275. Accessed March 18, 2026. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4598014.
• Ungermann, Kenneth A. The Race to Nome: The Story of the Heroic Alaskan Dog Teams That Rushed Diphtheria Serum to Stricken Nome in 1925. New York: Harper & Row. 1963.
• Wilson, William H. “The Serum Dash to Nome, 1925.” Alaska Journal 16 (1986): 250-259.
• Welch, Curtis. “Nome’s Solitary Physician Tells Gripping Story of Diphtheria Epidemic.” The Times (Trenton, NJ) February 8, 1925.

Suggested Resources

• Rozell, Ned. “Sled Dogs Were Lifesavers in the Serum.” Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Accessed March 19, 2026. https://www.gi.alaska.edu/alaska-science-forum/sled-dogs-were-lifesavers-serum-run.
• “Serum Run of 1925.” Alaska State Archives. Accessed March 19, 2026. https://archives.alaska.gov/education/serum.html. 
• “Serum Run Resources.” University of Alaska Fairbanks. Accessed March 29, 2026. https://library.uaf.edu/aprca/research-guides/serum-run.

Grace Martinez

Grace Martinez is a Ramapo college history major with a minor in museum & exhibition studies.

www.linkedin.com/in/%20grace-martinezz

In 1929, New York City filled the air with the heat and beat of classic Jazz. Many filled the nights with laughter, endless sleep, and dancing. Through all of New York, its popularity and lifestyle had seized the dream of millions. The city of lights that filled each street corner captured a significant historical moment. Even so, not everyone shared this beautiful moment and enjoyed the music when clubs continued to peak in popularity. Instead, lying in the dark streets, areas where police did not patrol, and ignorant of the possibilities, Albert Fish, also known as the “Moon Maniac“, filled the streets with evil. In the darkness, Albert Fish stalked his victims and did not hesitate to take away their life, a life that could have been long-lived. Still, New York’s streets held significant importance to our generation but avoided highlighting the potential danger that awaited. 

Albert Fish grew up in Washington, DC. There, he had found a lifestyle that suited him to a work life. Instead, Albert Fish’s childhood was filled with tremendous amounts of suffering. Albert Fish was the youngest in the family. He had three older siblings who later on contributed to his life of sadness. Among his family members, many were diagnosed with mental illnesses. His uncle, for example, had developed mania, while one of the two siblings was diagnosed with schizophrenia, and her sister was diagnosed with a “mental affliction” . Unfortunately for Albert, his suffering did not end there as later on in his life, many more came to be diagnosed with mental illnesses, one of them being his mother

The childhood of enjoyment and livelihood Albert Fish had wished to capture as a little boy was repeatedly redirected. Unfortunately, Albert was put in an orphanage where he spent most of his childhood. Albert Fish was physically abused in this Orphanage and grew up in an environment where he was fighting for his life. After years of countless abuse and neglect from those involved with the Orphanage, he was later taken out of the Thai environment by his mother. The history of abuse and negligence continuing in Albert Fish’s life has led to his mental corruption. Albert Fish was not only mentally broken but also started filling up a pool of hate and violence. 

In Albert Fish’s adult life, he took upon the opportunity for a field of change and decided to move to the city of opportunities, New York City, in 1890. Instead of living a life filled with opportunities and potential success, Albert Fish lived a life of evil. Albert Fish filled the streets of New York with terror and preyed on those who were vulnerable. Before his inhumane acts, he started by sexually assaulting male children. This was the beginning of what awaited Albert Fish. 

Little by little, his actions of violence began to grow, each becoming more brutal than the last encounter. Even so, the murder of Grace Budd was different from the other cases. Through the trails and mind of Albert Fish, he took the necessary steps to get away as a suspect.

The enjoyment and laughter that once filled the state of New York shifted into an environment of shock, filled with tension and sadness. The death of Grace Budd left many to wonder what happened to the 10-year-old child. In May 1928, Albert Fish introduced himself to the Budd family when he formally found interest in Grace Budd’s older brother. Albert Fish used another name to disguise his tracks when he decided to pursue his impulsive, horrific actions against Edward Budd. Soon after connecting with the Budd family, Albert Fish shifted his attention to Grace Budd after meeting her. After that encounter, Albert Fish did not hesitate to create a gate of opportunity to move his motives and scheming towards Grace Budd. With this shift of intention, Albert Fish seized the chance to take advantage of Grace Budd. The lies and deception had led to Albert Fish bringing Grace Budd to East Irvington, New York. In the abandoned house, there is where Albert Fish has committed the atrocious murder of Grace Budd, strangling the poor 10-year-old child Grace Budd to death.

1934 Wisteria Cottage building where Albert Fish claimed to murder Grace Budd and disassemble her body for cannibalistic motives

Unfortunately, as time has passed, the case has been apprehended due to multiple roadblocks. The only information and update investigators could follow up with was what appeared to be Grace Budd’s body. As stated in Brooklyn Daily Eagle on December 14, 1934, “…in Worthington Woods, between Ardsley and Elmsford, not far from where the skull of Grace Budd was found, unearthed other parts of a child’s skeleton, believed to be that of the Budd girl. Through the investigation, different pieces and bones were discovered from previous victims of Albert Fish. The ongoing investigation led to more discoveries about the older man Albert Fish and his horrendous actions behind closed doors.

Even though Albert Fish committed the crime in the year 1928, his deception and lies led to his avoidance of getting caught. Still, Albert Fish didn’t stop tormenting the Budd family. Even after the loss of a daughter, a friend, and a sister, Albert Fish would later, in the year 1934, send a letter to the Budd family anonymously, explaining all the horrific things he did to Grace Budd. In November 1930, the Budd family received a letter from Albert Fish. Even though Grace Budd’s disappearance has not been solved yet, receiving a letter jump started another investigation in hopes of finding closure to unanswered questions.

This letter that was sent to the family was a gateway opportunity for the parents to find out who had abducted Grace Budd. An investigator named King has successfully cracked the mystery of who the serial killer is. Through his success and findings, King tracked Albert Fish’s previous apartment, where he found other letters leading to a match. Now, the investigators knew the killer’s name, Albert Fish. Albert Fish’s luck had run out. The man who once terrorized the city would be put in ruins. He will be tracked and arrested for the heinous, inhumane crimes he has committed. On December 13, 1934, Albert Fish was caught and arrested for all the murders he had committed. 

To such an extent, the families and friends who were victims of Albert Fish’s awful murders will find some relief knowing that they have caught the man behind these killings. Unfortunately, those who have lost family or even a friend can not bear the loss. Rest assured, justice was brought to Albert Fish and served. On January 16, 1936, Albert Fish was executed by the electric chair. The streets of New York that once filled the horrors of Albert Fish were once replaced and slowly uplifted by the relief that a maniac wasn’t lurking in the dark areas of New York. 

Timeline of Albert Fish: Grace Budd Murder Case

https://www.sutori.com/en/story/albert-fish-grace-budd-murder-case–mcaUrwuKSAjAsS2YywaUt4zg

Bibliography: 

“Albert Fish.” Wikipedia, March 15, 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Fish. 

“Grace Budd: Albert Fish.” Newspapers.com. Accessed April 3, 2024. https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-brooklyn-daily-eagle-grace-budd-al/129753874/?locale=en-US.

Carney, Courtney Patterson. “Jazz and the Cultural Transformation of America in the 1920s.” LSU Scholarly Repository. Accessed April 3, 2024. https://repository.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations/176/#:~:text=Jazz%20greatly%20increased%20in%20popularity,defining%20the%20early%20twentieth%20century.

While researching the Tulsa Race Massacre, I learned about other terrible hate crimes like the Rosewood Massacre in Florida. Like the Tulsa Massacre, the death toll remains highly disputed with the official count being 27, but some estimates being as high as 150. I had no idea about this incident, I only knew about the Tulsa Race Massacre, because of the crazy fact that American planes dropped bombs on America. Lynchings were also very common in this era as well as other notable events like the Harlem riots. In Ireland, the English government tried setting up a puppet government, and by successfully installing them, rekindled hostilities. The puppet Provisional Government enacted England’s will more or less with the illusion of autonomy. Infighting occurred among countrymen and it wasn’t limited to IRA against the Provisional Government, but there was infighting in the IRA as well. Across the English Channel, Germany was trying to rebuild their society, economy, and culture. War reparations bled out the German treasury after they had to shovel over 132 gold marks (around 33 Billion in current USD) France, those who were being paid the reparations desperately needed them. The four-year war was fought heavily inside of Frances’s border, crippling its economy, and agricultural and industrial productions. Manpower all over Europe was hampered so badly, plus the ongoing Avian flu, the generation of men and women who were alive in that era, was dubbed “The Lost Generation.”

It wasn’t all negative, there were advancements in technology and day-to-day life was improved. Affordable cars become more commonplace in America thanks to Ford. Washing machines, radios, and refrigerators also entered American households all in one decade. The quality of life was becoming more convenient as each year passed. As mentioned in Casey’s article about Delta, airlines became a new method of transportation. Consumerism graced the American market, which isn’t a shock given the era known as “The Roaring Twenties”;  it is definitely interesting to see how new amenities and commodities made people’s lives much easier.

In conclusion, I left this course with way more knowledge of the period than expected. I always was uninterested in 1920s history, but I feel as if that’s because the subject matters weren’t bought up in an entertaining manner. Given the general autonomy of the course and how much of the learning was independent, I was able to learn about subjects I didn’t imagine I would be able to cover.

jbennis

Joe is a Sophomore at Ramapo and a Global Communications major enrolled in Discovering Digital History.

The Tulsa Race Massacre or Tulsa Race Riot is a tragic event in American history that occurred on May 31, 1921, to June 1, 1921. The exact cause of the event is a topic of contention, but on May 30th of 1921 a black man named Dick Rowland entered an elevator, when he got out the city of Tulsa was changed. After events transpired, a massive riot broke out where a white mob razed the black neighborhoods of Tulsa. Businesses and residential buildings were brought to ashes in less than 48 hours and Federal Government officials had to take charge,

May 30th, 1921

On May 30th, a shoe shiner named Dick Rowland entered the Drexel Building, his intentions remain unknown but he did interact with the elevator operator.  Shortly after Rowland left the elevator rumors spread of Dick Rowland forcing himself upon the elevator operator Sarah Page. Since Sarah Page was white and Rowland was an African American, outrage sparked in Tulsa among the white citizens.  As more and more people were informed of the alleged incident, details were muddied and accusations become more heinous than the last. It is uncertain what happened between the two individuals in the elevator, but what was certain was that Dick Rowland’s life was in danger. 

May 31st, 1921 

The following day police took Dick Rowland into custody and questioned him on the alleged assault. While he was in police custody, rumors of a lynch mob forming to kill Dick Rowland spread through the city like wildfire, which accelerated tensions between the African American and white communities. An armed group of nearly 100 black men, descended on the courthouse to protect Rowland. Once reaching the courthouse the group was turned back by the sheriff who tried to reassure them that Rowland was safe in police custody. The group had little to no confidence in the sheriff, due to a man being lynched a year prior while being in police custody. The sheriff did fortify the courthouse, he set up six of his men on the roof armed with long guns, disabled the power to the elevator, and erected barricades. 

Upon seeing groups of armed black men in the streets, bigoted residents went home to retrieve their own personal firearms. Near the courthouse, an armory belonging to the US National Guard was stocked full of rifles, and an estimated 400 angry white citizens made a plan to arm themselves with them. Fearing an attack, the National Guard locked down the armory and threatened to open fire on anyone who came close to the building, this display of force made the rioters quickly reconsider. Over 2000 angry rioters were outside the courthouse and wanted to harm Rowland. Around 10 PM the white mob reconvened while armed at the courthouse,  that’s when chaos broke out leading to the deaths of 12 people. A white man tried disarming a black World War 1 veteran, during the physical struggle, the firearm went off. The single gunshot erupted into a volley of fire, as protestors protecting Rowland and rioters there to harm him began engaging with one another. By the end of the shootout, 10 white people and two black people were slain. The angry white mob, furious and anxious over what they viewed as a possible “Race War” quickly escalated the situation by committing arson and burning black-owned businesses. The black men that offered security to the sheriff had to retreat while underfire to Greenwood, a predominantly black neighborhood. While all this was going down, the National Guard was drawing up plans on how to subdue the rioters and a contingent of white citizens remained at the courthouse, threatening to kill Rowland. 

June 1st, 1921

As the night progressed into the morning, sporadic skirmishes were still occurring especially near the Frisco train line. The Frisco train line was a redlining boundary, where many blacks lived. Around 1 AM fires started to rage through downtown Greenwood, destroying businesses, while the Tulsa Fire Department did everything in its power to combat the flames, many lost their way of life. Even the white firefighters weren’t safe from the fury of the hateful mob, with firetrucks being forced to turn back at gunpoint, by those who started the fire. By sunlight, over a dozen black-owned businesses were lost. Around 5 AM a train whistle sounded and many of the white mob took this as a signal to launch an all-out assault on the Greenwood neighborhood. Although the african american community defended their homes with everything at their disposal, the firepower was too immense. By daybreak most of Greenwood was evacuated, some left by choice others were annexed out of their own neighborhoods. Even more shocking was that it wasn’t just gunfire, but aerial attacks too! There were local reports of multiple aircraft circling over Greenwood Ave, these planes were sources of small arms fire and even incendiary explosives. There were even unconfirmed reports of machine guns being fixed onto planes and firing down on the crowds. Government officials claimed that the planes were there for aerial reconnaissance of a possible “black uprising” and denied the use of force.

Around 9 AM the National Guard arrived in Tulsa and at 11 AM martial law was in effect. By noon most of the violence was ceased, but there were still pockets of violence. 

Casualties and Aftermath 

The number of people that perished during the Tulsa Race Massacre is unknown and highly debated. At first, estimates ranged from 20-150, but now it’s widely accepted amongst scholars that possibly over 300 people lost their lives in those horrifying 48 hours. The massacre received national coverage, but many facts remained hidden from public knowledge up until recently. There are reports of mass graves and in November 2022 they found an unmarked grave with over 20 bodies buried. This is an unspoken horrifying event that happened a little over 100 years ago, there is still much research to be done about the outlying effects this event had on not just Tulsa but neighboring communities as well. On the 100th anniversary of the massacre, President Joe Biden delivered a speech, talking about the racial injustice that happened and that still occurs in America to this day.

Work Cited

Hirsch, J. S. (2002). Riot and remembrance: The Tulsa race war and its legacy. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Tulsa Historical Society and Museum. (n.d.). 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre. Retrieved from https://www.tulsahistory.org/exhibit/1921-tulsa-race-massacre/

Oklahoma Tribune. (1921, June 1). Trouble Flares at Tulsa, Oklahoma. Newspapers.com

jbennis

Joe is a Sophomore at Ramapo and a Global Communications major enrolled in Discovering Digital History.

The website that I chose for my website analysis assignment is the National Women’s History Museum (NWHM), specifically a sub they titled “Crusade for the Vote.” They have a wide variety of resources including primary sources, educator resources, recommended readings, and a link to their physical museum website, womenshistory.org. The website provides the context of the 1920s and the women’s fight to vote. In the main paragraph at the top of their webpage, they mention Elizabeth Cady Stanton and her role in the Seneca Falls Convention and the “arduous journey” towards expanding women’s rights. An empowering quote from Susan B. Anthony is also featured, reading, “There will never be complete equality until women themselves help to make the laws and elect the lawmakers.”

The creator of the website is the National Women’s History Museum which is located in Alexandria, Virginia. On their ‘About Us’ page, they state their mission to be “to tell the stories of women who transformed our nation.” They plan to achieve that “through growing state-of-the-art online presence and a future physical museum to educate, inspire, empower, shape the future, and provide a complete view of American history.” The current director, President & CEO, is Holly Hotchner, who was also the first museum director at one of America’s oldest museums, the New-York Historical Society. On her biographical page, she is quoted saying “Today, women are not only finding their voices, but their voices are also being heard. There could be no better time than now to build this museum.”

The site is very well done. It is aesthetically pleasing and very responsive. The color palette of the website is very cohesive as the colors are neutral but also have some bright shades of purple that help the sections of the website to really pop. The website has interactive elements such as a Timeline with high-quality images of primary documents and photos of crucial figures during the women’s rights movement from 1820 through 1920, covering a whole century. The quality and modernity of the website create a pleasant experience when searching through their site. There are also three buttons on this page (as shown above) that lead to three additional pages: (1) the history of woman suffrage, (2) additional educational resources, and (3) scanned versions of primary sources.

I do trust the site because it is produced by a well-known museum that has access to primary sources. From the presentation of the website, it seems that the authors worked very hard on it and have done extensive research to ensure that the information is accurate but also presented in a way that is easy to navigate and visually appealing.

This site can be used for 1920s research in various ways. One can use it for access to both primary and secondary resources. The research and information that is provided span over a century’s worth of information. In regards to the 1920s specifically, there is enough information that is provided to ensure that an individual using the website for research can gain enough information that provides enough context of the era, as well as the aftermath of various developments that took place during this time. The information that is provided is not only covering one specific group of women but also women of color and working women, to allow for a greater understanding of how women were impacted during this era.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.

Charles Ponzi, born in Lugo Italy on March 3, 1882, was a native of Italy who led a life of crime. According to the Century Foundation, a think tank, while living back in Italy, he would frequently steal from his parents and parish priests. [1] Eventually, he immigrated to Canada for a period of time and then moved permanently to the United States (U.S.) where he gained his notoriety in 1920. Charles Ponzi’s last name, Ponzi, is associated with and named after one of the most famous and well-known financial scams all around the world. However, what do we know about Charles Ponzi and how did the Ponzi scheme originate? Well, in 1919, Ponzi discovered what he saw to be the most brilliant idea – he decided to buy certificates for postage stamps from the International Postal Union and then sell them in another market where the prices are significantly higher. Was he aware that it was likely not going to make investors a lot of money? Most definitely. However, he knew that he could take advantage of investors that were gullible and new to investment in general.

In addition, it has been reported that Ponzi never even purchased any postage certificates. He would simply use money from new investors to somewhat repay the initial investors, and of course, he would not forget to save some for himself. He was only focused on how much he could eventually grow his own money, and with that, he developed what is now known as the Ponzi Scheme. Britannica defines a Ponzi Scheme as a “fraudulent and illegal investment operation that promises quick, easy, and significant returns on investments with little or no risk.” [2] They continue to describe the Ponzi scheme in a structure that is now more commonly referred to as a pyramid scheme. “in which the operator, at the pyramid’s top, acquires a small group of investors that is initially provided with tremendous investment returns via funds secured from the second group of investors.” [3] In only eight months of twelve, in 1920, Charles Ponzi was able to “earn” about $15 million by convincing everyday individuals in finance that he could help them make even more money and that he knew the secret to true wealth. He was able to use his words to persuade his followers in trusting him with more and more money. He was worried that citizens of the public were beginning to catch onto him as he was not trying to hide his newfound wealth. According to the Century Foundation, he was living in a very large mansion. With time, he decided that hiring a public relations expert would be the best move. [4] However, it was the same public relations expert that tipped off the authorities to Ponzi’s fraud. Newspaper reporters also began to pick up on pieces of the scam as word was starting to float around among concerned investors that were getting tired of waiting on their investment. Eventually, it was the Boston Post that fully exposed Charles Ponzi and his scheme.

According to Britannica, Ponzi scammed and essentially stole millions of dollars from thousands of New England residents, primarily from 1919 through 1920 simply by creating a plan based on the sale of European postage stamps. He initially began with only focusing on a small group of investors, however, as word spread of this new investment opportunity with great promises, hundreds of investors began contacting Ponzi on their own accord to try and get a piece of the pie. His highest peak of the scam, in his eyes one of his biggest accomplishments, he raised $1 million in only three hours. [5] However, nine months later, his fraud was discovered. As investors awaited their promised higher investment, there was only $30 worth of stamps, for which Ponzi collected $15 million from individuals. After this was discovered by the investors, Ponzi was arrested in 1920 and faced heavy prison time after being charged with multiple counts of fraud and larceny. During his time in prison, he tried contacting as many investors as he could, apologizing for his “mistakes” and ensuring to them that he would make it up to them when he was released. It is doubtful that Ponzi actually regretted his actions, instead, he was trying to retain any relationships he possibly could with these investors so he could scam them once again. The United States Immigration Authorities did not want to give him a second chance however and instead deported him back to Italy. Ironically, back in Italy, he served as a treasury official for Mussolini’s fascist movement until his reputation was discovered. He tried to salvage what he could of his reputation and fled to Brazil until he lost his job and subsequently, all of his money. [6] in an article for the Wall Street Journal, titled, “The Original Ponzi Schemer,” the author discusses the psychology and thought process behind Charles Ponzi, describing his actions as a result of “status anxiety,” and wanting to both be and live among the wealthy. [7]

Charles Ponzi was the most prominent criminal that followed through with this scam, thus it is named after him. However, according to The Times, the scheme that is known as the Ponzi scheme did not only begin with Charles Ponzi. It first surfaced in 1879 by Sarah Howe in Boston after she created what was known as the “Ladies Deposit” to provide a space for women to make investments. Similar to Charles Ponzi, she promised the women she worked with that they would receive a much higher return on investment, insisting that their initial investment would double in under a year, but that never materialized. As word of her promises spread throughout Boston, the reporters for the Boston Daily Advertiser began following the numbers and ended up revealing her scam. According to The Times, she did eventually get caught and proven guilty, receiving three years in prison. However, she clearly did not learn her lesson because as soon as she got out, she carried out a nearly identical scam for another two years before she got caught and punished once again.

Modern-Day Ponzi Schemes

Even though there is a lot of information regarding Ponzi Schemes and signs to look out for that have been published both in books and online, Ponzi Schemes still continue to happen in modern times. In 1997, numerous Ponzi Schemes which took place in Albania collapsed, sparking nationwide rioting and rebellion, which eventually developed into a major crisis. [8] The most relevant and largest Ponzi Scheme to date was run by Bernard Larence “Bernie” Madoff, born April 29, 1938, in Queens, New York, who defrauded thousands of investors out of more than hundreds of billions of dollars for nearly twenty years. When investors chose to invest in his Ponzi Scheme, they felt that they could trust him due to his seemingly respectable reputation and experience in working for NASDAQ, an American financial corporation and stock exchange, in the 1990s. Another reason many investors were inclined to trust him due to his insistence that he used a method that was legitimate. He held the majority of his client’s funds in bank accounts and would fund or repay investors that were wanting to “cash out” with funds from other investors, similar to Ponzi. However, it was not until 2008, when the market crashed, that he could no longer keep up. With that, he decided to confide in his sons regarding the scam he had been running, and they notified authorities. The last recorded amount being held in the bank account was $64.8 billion in funds from his client’s around the time that he was caught. In 2009, Madoff actually pled guilty to his crimes and was charged with 11 federal felony counts, and received a sentence of 150 years in prison. [9]

With society continuing to move towards a more digital platform for all of our needs, it is important to be able to spot the signs of a potential Ponzi or pyramid scheme as they are only going to become more common due to the greater accessibility and reach they now have online. As seen in the case of Charles Ponzi, these scam artists will purposely try to play towards an individual’s anxiety and fear of missing out. They will try to be very picky as to who they will allow to contribute an investment towards their scam, which leads to other individuals, even those that may be suspicious of the ‘investment opportunity, to feel like they may miss out on a million-dollar opportunity. However, it seems that in the case of the Ponzi Schemes, history is repeating itself. It is imminent that there will still continue to be new Ponzi Schemes created and those that are still being kept under wraps will continue to be run. Charles Ponzi has left behind a legacy, and while not necessarily a positive one, it will forever impact the financial sector. Ponzi Schemes are still seen as “white-collar” crimes that tend to get a blind eye because they usually involve individuals of higher status and wealth, which is another aspect of the criminal justice system that could use some further reform.

Footnotes:
[1] The Century Foundation et al., “Who Was Charles Ponzi?,” The Century Foundation, March 7, 2016, https://tcf.org/content/commentary/who-was-charles-ponzi/?agreed=1.
[2]“Ponzi Scheme,” Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, inc.), https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ponzi-scheme#ref1111939.
[3] Ibid.
[4] The Century Foundation et al., “Who Was Charles Ponzi?”
[5] “Ponzi Scheme,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
[6] The Century Foundation et al., “Who Was Charles Ponzi?”
[7] Daniel Akst, “The Original Ponzi Schemer,” The Wall Street Journal (Dow Jones & Company, October 15, 2020), https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-original-ponzi-schemer-11602778470.
[8] “In Ponzi We Trust,” Smithsonian.com (Smithsonian Institution, December 1, 1998), https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/in-ponzi-we-trust-64016168/.
[9] Adam Hayes, “The Bernie Madoff Story,” Investopedia (Investopedia, April 22, 2021), https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bernard-madoff.asp.

Resources:

Akst, Daniel. “The Original Ponzi Schemer.” The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, October 15, 2020. https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-original-ponzi-schemer-11602778470.

The Century Foundation, Richard D. Kahlenberg, Ann O’Leary and Julie Kashen, Casey Berkovitz, Anna Bernstein, — By Rebecca Vallas, — By David Brady, — By Richard D. Kahlenberg, — By Amanda Novello, and — By Ann O’Leary and Julie Kashen. “Who Was Charles Ponzi?” The Century Foundation, March 7, 2016. https://tcf.org/content/commentary/who-was-charles-ponzi/?agreed=1.

Hayes, Adam. “The Bernie Madoff Story.” Investopedia. Investopedia, April 22, 2021. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bernard-madoff.asp.

“In Ponzi We Trust.” Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution, December 1, 1998. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/in-ponzi-we-trust-64016168/.

“Ponzi Scheme.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Accessed April 30, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ponzi-scheme#ref1111939.

Weisman, Steve. “The History of Ponzi Schemes Goes Deeper Than You Think.” Time. Time, August 12, 2020. https://time.com/5877434/first-ponzi-scheme/.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.

It’s October 16th, 1923. The Yankees just received their inaugural title against the New York Giants in a 6-4 matchup after have three years in a row worth of matchups for the World Series. But the question is how, did the Yankees get to this first big win for the infamous baseball team from New York? The 1923 season was a year of the 3 R’s rebirth, redemption, and revenge. All it would take was the magic of Babe Ruth, a new stadium, and determination, and the Yankees finally receive the title. The Yankees manager at the time, Miller Huggins led the team to their straight pennant with a 98-53 record. The Yankees eventually took second place of the Detroit Tigers in the American League. At the end of the season they avenged their 1921 and 1922 losses by the Giants in 6 games.

Ruth’s house is built

When considering the Yankees’ rebirth, the iconic first Yankee Stadium opened in 1923 after the Yankees had used two fields, Hilltop Park from 1903-1912 and the Polo Grounds from 1912-1922. The Yankees had previously shared Polo Grounds with the New York Giants which they eventually grew out of because of the Polo Grounds’ rent prices. The Yankee owners Ruppert and Huston made a move to build a new stadium that would be called “Yankee Stadium.” Ruppert would eventually buy out Yankee Stadium and become the sole owner of the New York Yankees. The raising of rent at the Polo grounds allowed Ruppert and Huston to make a profitable move to buy land located in the Bronx across the Harlem River for 675,000 ( worth 10,310,189 now!) After making this move, land the was starting to be struck in May of 1922. The Stadium would take 11 months to build and cost $.2 million. Yankee Stadium was the first ballpark with three tiers of seating, and the first ballpark referred to as a stadium. The Stadium opened on April 18th, 1923. This stadium held 58,000 people. At the end of the season Babe Ruth ended up winning the MVP award, rightfully so because he held the Yankees to winning the World Series.

Hit the ground running/ Opening Day!

On January 5th, 1920, the Yankees announced that they purchased a heavy-hitting outfielder George Herman “Babe” Ruth from the Boston Red Sox for the sum of $125,000. You may ask why I mentioned a baseball player transaction from three years prior, this is because after seeing Ruth play at the other ballparks, the owners of the Yankees decided to build Yankees Stadium around Ruth, in which the construction ended up being excellent in the fact that Ruth ended up hitting a home run in the first game in the new stadium. The stadium was nicknamed “The House that Ruth Built” Ruth had doubled Yankees’ attendance which helped the team pay for the new stadium. Babe Ruth had beaten his whole team with stats with 205 hits, 151 runs, 41 home runs, 131 runs batted in and a .393 batting average. Babe Ruth hit his first home run here to start off the World Series. Not only was Babe Ruth a great significance to the team but Louis Gehrig also had a debut during the 1923 season.

Breakdown of World Series Games

Game 1- October 10th 1923, Loss of a shoe?

The Giants won the first game of the World Series. With a total of 55,307 people in attendance. The Giants scored 5 runs, while the Yankees scored 4. The Giants had eight hits, the Yankees had twelve, and there was one error by the Yankees. Babe Ruth didn’t hit the game-winning home run. Casey Stengel, a Giants outfielder at the time, would go on to become a Hall of Fame manager for the Yankees 25 years later. Stengel’s shoe was loose as he rounded the bases for an inside-the-park home run, causing him to lose his shoe after the home run! He was the first to hit a home run! Waight Hoyt took the Yankee’s mound in the game only lasted two and third innings, allowing four runs on four hits. Busch took over Hoyt’s relief and pitched well until Casey Stengel hit a game-winning inside-the-park home run in the ninth inning.

Game 2- October 11th, 1923 TIED

Game 2 is won by the Yankees! The game drew a crowd of 40,402 people. The Yankees scored four runs per game, while the Giants had two. The Yankees had ten hits to the Giants’ nine, and the Giants had two errors. Babe Ruth returned to the Polo Grounds for Game 2, a park where he loved to hit, and he responded by hitting two home runs in the Yankees’ 2-1 win to tie the series at one game apiece. In addition to Babe Ruth’s two solo home runs, Herb Pennock was instrumental in the Yankees’ victory. Pennock, the American League’s winning percentage leader in 1923, pitched all nine innings in game two, allowing just two runs and tying the series at one game apiece.

Game 3 October 12th, 1923 1-0? For A World Series?!

With 62,420 fans in attendance, the Yankees lost again in the third game. The Giants got one run on four hits, while the Yankees got four hits and one error. When the series returned to Yankee Stadium for game three, the game was scoreless until Casey Stengel hit his second World Series home run. .The only run that was scored and one to nothing Giants triumph it was the first one to nothing game in World Series history in which the only run scored was on a home run newspapers the next day had a great time reporting that the record of the series was Stengel two Yankees one. Casey Stengel was indeed the game three hero, but he came down to a pitching duel between Art Nehf and Sam Jones. The Giants starter won the game by pitching a six-hit shutout, putting the Yankees in a two-game deficit.

Game 4 October 13th, 1923

With 46,302 fans in attendance, the Yankees have yet another victory. However, after losing two of the first three games of the 1923 series, the Yankees came back to win Game Four, scoring six runs in the second inning to pull ahead of the New York Giants, and that was all the Yankees needed in an 8-4 victory over their Gotham City rivals Bob Shawky, After allowing three runs over seven and third innings, he earned the win at the end of a 15-year career. Herb Pennock contributed to the win by recording his first career postseason save.

Game 5 October 14th, 1923 The smelling of a victory

The Yankees put on a show for nearly 63,000 Yankee Stadium fans in game five. They burst out of the gate once again, scoring seven runs in the first two innings. Joe Dugan and Bob Musa combined for six RBI, while Joe Bush pitched a one-run three-hit shutout.

Game 6 October 15th, 1923 World Series CHAMPIONS

This game drew a total of 34,172 spectators. Babe Ruth hit a solo home run in the first inning of Game 6 at the Polo Grounds, but the Yankees fell behind four to one-eighth inning when a five-run rally led the Yankees to their first-ever World Series championship. Babe Ruth, Bob Musil, and Herb Pennock all pitched in to help the Yankees win game six. Finally, the Yankees won their first World Championship, and it was in their new stadium, which drew crowds of over 60,000 people and broke the record for ticket sales at the time of over one million dollars.

The Yankees impact on the 1920s.

The 1920s were the Golden Age of American Sports and the Age of the Spectator. The 1920s was the decade of baseball and pastime as well. Because of the strong economy of the time workers had more leisure time to enjoy bigger stadiums and gymnasiums. With the building of stadiums was also the introduction to the radio and newspapers to keep coverage of baseball during this decade. The 1920s was also the emergence of the most famous athlete in the United States, Babe Ruth who was the right fielder for the Yankees not only with his skills but his personality everyone loved Ruth. Ruth was one of the heroes when you reflect on the 1920s. Because of how big baseball was for the 1920s it was a great set up for spectators after the 1920s and decades to come. Baseball in the 1920s lined up perfec

Timelime

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Bibliography:

Times, T., n.d. The New York Times Story of the Yankees.

New York Yankees Newspaper Book told through the Washington Post

Bain News Service, Publisher. Opening DayYankee Stadium baseball. , 1923. Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/2014715917/.

Roberta Carbah

I am a Ramapo senior who is majoring in Elementary Education. I am taking this course because I want to be certified in Social Studies at the middle school level. I graduated from Bergen Community College in the Spring of ’19 with an associate’s in Early Childhood Education. Currently, I am working  at Starbucks as a Shift Supervisor until I obtain my degree from Ramapo.