Who Flew?

The two pilots tasked with the ambitious journey were General Sir Helperus Andreas “Pierre” van Ryneveld and Air Vice Marshal Sir Christopher Joseph Quintin “Flossie” Brand. Both men were highly decorated military veterans and had lengthy aviation experience that made them uniquely suited for the expedition. Pierre and Flossie were each highly decorated earning awards such as the Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), the Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB), the Distinguished Service Award (DSO), and the Military Cross (MC) during their careers. After their successful flight each man was officially knighted by the British Empire. 

General Sir Helperus Andreas van Ryneveld (aka Pierre van Ryneveld)

Despite Pierre van Ryneveld’s impressive military career, he is most notably known for the trans-African flight. During the first world war Pierre originally served as a part of the North Lancashire Regiment before he transferred to the Royal Flying Corp, and then to the Royal Air Force. After the war, and in addition to his other awards Pierre was given the Chevalier of Legion of Honor by the French government. Part of the reason Pierre was chosen to take on such an ambitious flight was to establish the first South African Air Force (SAAF) on behalf of the British government. Following the success of the flight Pierre established the SAAF and became the director of such until 1933, after which he became the Chief General Staff until his retirement in 1949. 

Air Vice Marshal Sir Christopher Joseph Quintin Brand (aka Flossie)

Commonly referred to as Quintin Brand or Flossie, although did not begin his career within the air force he still managed to accumulate an impressive career. Originally Flossie joined the CID Inspectors Unit (Criminal Investigation Department) in Johannesburg, and only a few years later in 1913 he joined the South African Defense Force, which included the air force at the time. In 1915 Flossie traveled to England to join England’s Royal Flying Corps, and earned several medals of honor which also included the Distinguishable Service Order. After his successful flight to Cape Town, Flossie continued his military career during the second world war and was made a commanding officer with several different air force regiments. 

Jan Smuts
Although Smuts did not personally take to the sky, he was a significant driving force behind the financial and political support for the flight. Before becoming one of the more influential prime ministers of his era, Smuts was a decorated military officer, statesman and philosopher. He took office as the prime minister of the Union of South Africa between 1919-1924 and 1939-1948. His government fueled a large majority of expeditions, and viewed it as a technological opportunity and as a symbolic gesture to link South Africa to the British Empire. 

Reasons for Flight

The origins of the flight were rooted in both competition and imperial ambition. One contemporary report suggested that The Times of London had offered a £10,000 prize for the fastest flight from London to Cape Town. Smuts, eager to demonstrate South Africa’s modernity and its place within the British imperial network, authorized the purchase of the Vickers Vimy for £4,500 and selected Pierre and Flossie to undertake the mission. However several other accounts emphasize the fact that Pierre was also tasked with establishing the South African Air Force after landing in Cape Town.

The only reason the flight was deemed feasible was because of the significant innovation made in aviation technology during the first world war. Such innovations included advancements in propellers, engines and turbines which allowed for longer flight times and more stability while in flight.  

Innovations in Aviation

Although the first world war resulted in mass casualties, violence, and the collapse of several empires, it also provided the world with several innovations in technology. Despite the fact that many of these innovations were a part of destructive machines and weaponry, there were several other developments made that greatly improved modern life. Such as innovations made within aviation. These improvements included the modernization of communication between pilots and those on the ground, within the early years of the first world war these communications mainly occurred through Morse code, however by the end of the war radiotelephone communication made it easier, faster and clearer to communicate. Additionally innovations were made so that planes were able to endure more types of weather conditions, as well as allowed pilots to fly for long times and distances. The installation of oxygen systems allowed for the long-range flights, and several German pioneers created liquid-oxygen systems for extended altitude missions. The development of the Gyroscopic instruments enabled safer night and cloud-covered flights. Several other innovations in engines and propellers, as well as in the very design of aircrafts themselves made flight, and especially long-distance flights more possible. Without these modernizations in aircraft the first trans-African flight would have never occurred, and it’s likely that modern flight would have been different than what many know today. 

The Events of the Flight

The journey itself began on February 4th  1920, when Pierre and Flossie departed from Brooklands in the United Kingdom. They aimed to reach Cape Town, completing a direct air route that had never before been achieved. Their arrival on March 20th 1920 marked the end of a 45‑day odyssey that included multiple crashes, mechanical failures, and aircraft changes. 
The original Vickers Vimy, named The Silver Queen, was forced to land in Wadi Halfa after crossing the Mediterranean and was ultimately deemed beyond repair. A second Vimy, The Silver Queen II, carried them from Cairo until a crash in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) on March 5th-6th. The final leg of the journey was completed in an Airco DH.9, renamed The Voortrekker, provided by the South African government. In total, the flight required 109 hours and 30 minutes of actual flying time. In May of 1920, both aviators were knighted for their achievement. 

The map below is interactive, and details the flight path taken by Pierre and Flossie, the purple pins are confirmed stops within official reports and the blue pins illustrates the flight path Leo Walmsley detailed in his report from March 1920.

Public Reactions

There were several different reactions to the success of the first trans-African flight. Although the majority of the public, both in London and in South Africa, had very positive and hopeful reactions there were also several groups of people who reacted negatively to the flight’s success. 

The divided reactions between populations revealed deeper political and social tensions within Africa, and especially within South Africa and Cape Town. The public’s reactions were sharply drawn by racial and social differences that were already deeply rooted within their society.  For the better half of a century South Africa, and especially Cape Town was colonized by Britain, therefore it’s unsurprising a large population of white people lived within the settlements. The majority of this population was very proud of this achievement, since it not only demonstrated Western superiority in aircraft technology but it also connected the British Empire in ways never before seen. This reaffirmed their connections to their home country. Simultaneously these triumphant feelings exposed racial anxieties of the white population who felt political unrest and resistance from black South Africans even before the flight. The celebration of the flight thus became entangled with efforts to assert control and reinforce racial hierarchies. 
 On the contrary the native and black populations of the settlements often viewed and met the success of the flight with much skepticism and even indifference. Rather than the flight symbolizing progress, it represented a deepening entrenchment of imperial power and the strengthening of settler authority. The aircraft itself, descending from the sky, and bearing the symbols of the empire, became a metaphor for the technological and political imbalances that defined colonial rule. In this sense, the flight encapsulated the contradictions of the early 20th century: extraordinary technological innovation paired with profound social inequality. 

How this reflects themes of the 1920s

The significance of the 1920 trans‑African flight extended far beyond its technical accomplishment. It demonstrated the rapid advances in aviation technology that had emerged from the First World War and showcased the growing ability of aircraft to shrink imperial space. Before this moment, travel between Britain and South Africa required long sea voyages along the western coast of Africa. The flight symbolically collapsed this distance, reinforcing the idea that the empire could be connected through modern technology. It also positioned Britain, and by extension its dominions, as leaders in global aviation. The flight also stands as a representation of the broader themes of the early 1900s and the 1920s in particular. It highlights the transformative impact of wartime technological development, the imperial ambitions of Britain and its dominions, and the racial tensions that shaped South African society. It was both a triumph of engineering and a reminder of the unequal world in which such triumphs were celebrated. 

Conclusion

The 1920 trans‑African flight ultimately stands as far more than a remarkable feat of early aviation. It was a moment in which the technological momentum generated by the First World War collided with the political ambitions of the empire and the deeply hierarchical social realities of South Africa. Pierre van Ryneveld and Quintin Brand’s journey demonstrated how wartime innovations which included stronger engines, improved communications, oxygen systems, and more reliable aircraft designs, had transformed the possibilities of flight, shrinking imperial space and redefining the limits of human mobility. Yet the public responses to their achievement revealed that technological progress did not translate into social unity. Instead, the flight exposed the fractures within South African society: the pride and imperial enthusiasm of white settlers contrasted sharply with the skepticism and apprehension of Black Africans who saw the event as another symbol of entrenched colonial power. In this way, the Silver Queen expedition encapsulated the contradictions of the early twentieth century, an era marked by extraordinary innovation alongside profound inequality. By tracing the story of this flight, its origins, and its reception, we gain insight not only into the development of modern aviation but also into the contested meanings of “progress” in a world still shaped by empire, race, and the legacies of war.

Citations

• Barker, Ralph. “A Brief History of the Royal Flying Corps in World War I : Barker, Ralph, 1917- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive.” Internet Archive, 2022, archive.org/details/briefhistoryofro0000bark/page/n5/mode/2up. 
• Barns, T. Alexander. “A Trans-African Expedition.” Journal of the Royal African Society, vol. 24, no. 96, 1925, pp. 272–86. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/716208. 
• Biddle, Tami Davis. “AIR POWER THEORY: AN ANALYTICAL NARRATIVE FROM THE FIRST WORLD WAR TO THE PRESENT.” VOLUME I: THEORY OF WAR AND STRATEGY, edited by J. Boone Bartholomees, Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, 2010, pp. 279–310. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep12114.23. Accessed 2 May 2026.
• DEDERING, TILMAN. “Blue Skies into White Space: Southern African Responses to the Trans-African Flight of the Silver Queen, 1920.” Technology and Culture, vol. 59, no. 2, 2018, pp. 289–312. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26804414. 
• Filby, A. E. “A New Trans-African Route.” The Geographical Journal, vol. 93, no. 5, 1939, pp. 419–24. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1788712. Accessed 1 Apr. 2026.
• Gazette, London. ““The London Gazette” Issue 31900.” The Gazette Official Public Record, 14 May 1920, p. 5480, www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/31900/page/5480.
• Masego Panyane. “University of Pretoria Commemorates 100 Years of Trans-African Flight and Re-Installation of Flight Monument.” University of Pretoria, 2020, www.up.ac.za/news/university-of-pretoria-commemorates-100-years-of-trans-african-flight-and-re-installation-of. Accessed 1 Apr. 2026.
• Stanley, William R. “Trans-South Atlantic Air Link in World War II.” GeoJournal, vol. 33, no. 4, 1 Aug. 1994, pp. 459–463, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00806430. 
• “The Evolution of World War I Aircraft.” Si.edu, 7 May 2025, airandspace.si.edu/explore/stories/world-war-i-laboratory-air.
• Walmsley, Leo. “The Recent Trans-African Flight and Its Lesson.” Geographical Review, vol. 9, no. 3, 1920, pp. 149–60. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/207254.  

madison

Madison is currently a senior at the Ramapo College of New Jersey, who took this course in the spring of 2026. She has a major in Visual Arts, with a concentration in Art History, along with a double minor in Anthropology and Museum and Exhibitions Studies. After graduating Madison hopes to continue her education in order to become an Archaeologist or Museum Educator.

Discovering the Epidemic

Established as a Gold Rush town in the late 1800s, Nome, Alaska was home to roughly 1,800 people in 1925.¹ Only one of them was a physician. Dr. Curtis Welch first encountered a suspected childhood diphtheria case in October of 1924, however since no one else in the child’s family was exhibiting symptoms of the highly contagious respiratory disease he dismissed it as a cold. The child died two days later, a tragedy Welch ascribed to malnutrition. On January 20th, however, he officially diagnosed a seven year old Indigenous child with diphtheria after noticing the distinctive smell of the disease. The only antitoxin serum Welch had on hand had expired five years earlier. Realizing that the child was unlikely to recover, he risked administering the expired serum. Welch did not observe any negative reaction to the antitoxin. However, his attempt at treatment was too late, and the child passed away. By this point, Welch was able to conclude that the expired serum, while not harmful, would not be effective enough to fight off an epidemic. He immediately notified the mayor of Nome and they formed an emergency Board of Health to enforce a town-wide quarantine.²

The Call for Help

Welch sent a telegram asking for help from the Public Health Service in Washington, D. C. The group was able to quickly locate 300,000 units of antitoxin in Anchorage, but they immediately ran into the issue of transportation. There were two small planes in Anchorage, however they had been disassembled for the winter. Even if they were functional, they would have likely been useless in the below freezing temperatures and 60 to 70 mile per hour winds of the Alaskan winter.³ Instead, the Board of Health and territorial Governor Scott Bone chose to transport the serum via dog sled along the Alaskan Mail Route, also called the Iditarod Trail.⁴ This route normally took 20 days for one team to complete, but this would have been far too long for Nome to wait. Instead, they decided on a relay team of mushers and their dog teams. With the help of the United States Signal Corps, which operated the Alaskan telegraph system, the Board of Health contacted 20 men who agreed to transport the antitoxin to Nome.⁵ On January 27th, the serum was delivered by train from Anchorage to Nenana. There, 674 miles away from Nome, the race began.⁶

The Great Race for Mercy

From the station at Nenana, William “Wild Bill” Shannon and his team took off towards Tolovana. The 52 miles he covered marked the first leg of the serum run. The race involved 20 men and over 150 dogs in total.⁷ These teams travelled in blizzard conditions, and one musher, Charlie Evans, later claimed that he ran through -64 degree weather during his leg of the trip.⁸ There was a great amount of diversity amongst the mushers, with many European immigrants, native born white Americans, members of Indigenous Athabascan tribes, and men of blended ancestry running on the trail. Details about individual mushers and their experiences during the serum run can be found in the map below.

The Eyes of the Nation

The diphtheria epidemic and the serum run itself became sources of national interest. Newspapers across the country, from Hawai’i to Maine, covered the efforts to save Nome. People eagerly followed the plight in Alaska, and newspaper companies attempted to reach Welch for comment. He later told the Surgeon General that he destroyed all the wires sent to him by the press, saying “I am a physician, not a press agent.”⁹ Still, the newspapers continued to allow people from every state to follow what was happening in the farthest reaches of the American territory. All of this took place in a decade that saw an uptick in interest in national news.

Leonhard Seppala and Togo

In an effort to quicken the relay, Nome’s Board of Health decided to add more mushers to the trip after it had already begun. Leonhard Seppala, a Norwegian immigrant and famed dog sled racer, had already been sent from Nome to Nulato to pick up the serum. He had no way of knowing that more teams had been added or that the serum had actually passed through Nulato already. His trip to Nulato wound up being very fortunate, however, as Henry Ivanoff’s dogs picked up the scent of reindeer only half a mile outside of Shaktoolik. The dogs refused to return to the trail, so upon seeing Seppala Ivanoff waved him down and transferred the serum to him. Seppala, whose team was led by the famous Siberian Husky Togo, headed towards Golovin in Ivanoff’s place.¹⁰.

On his way to Golovin, Seppala had to choose between travelling along the coastline of Norton Bay, adding hours to the run, or cutting 20 miles across the frozen Bay itself. The ice could crack at any time, potentially stranding him and his team on an ice drift. Worse, they could be plunged into the icy sea. Seppala, whose daughter Seigrid had contracted and recovered from diphtheria a few years earlier, decided to cut across the Bay.¹¹

Togo led Seppala’s team in a straight line across Norton Bay. All the while, the man himself listened carefully for the sound of cracking ice, though he could not be sure it was not covered by the howling wind. At one point, the strong gusts blew the sled sideways, taking the dogs with it. Seppala righted them and moved on. Finally, late in the evening, he and his dogs arrived at the shore of Norton Bay. They had successfully crossed the frozen sea. Seppala and his team stopped to rest in the shelter of his friend’s igloo overnight. A few short hours after the team came ashore, the ice of the bay they had just run across began to break. ¹²

Seppala and his team left the next morning. When they finally arrived in Golovin, they had travelled over 91 miles on the serum run.¹³ This was the longest distance covered by any individual team. While this remains the official length credited to Seppala’s team, it does not include the trip they took from Nome to Shaktoolik. In total, the dogs had actually run 268 miles within two days.¹⁴

Gunnar Kaasen and Balto

Seppala transferred the serum to Charlie Olson in Golovin, who then travelled 25 miles to Bluff. There, he handed it off to Norwegian-born musher Gunnar Kaasen and his team, led by the Siberian Husky Balto. The vsibility was so poor that Kaasen nearly directed his team to run straight through a river. He was stopped only by Balto’s refusal to move forward. Not long after they rerouted around the river, Seppala and his team came to Topkop Hill. With a 600-foot summit and no path around it, all mushers dreaded the landmark. Seppala had to get out of his sled and push it from behind while his team pulled it up the hill. During this process Kaasen completely lost sensation in his face.¹⁵

After climbing up and subsequently sledding down Topkop Hill, Kaasen and his team continued on towards Point Safety. However, while passing through Bonanza flats, the intense winds flipped over Kaasen’s sled and pulled several of his dogs with it. After righting the sled, he realized that the serum had been knocked off in the crash. In the low visibility Kaasen had to remove his mittens and search through the snow with his bare hands. Eventually, he was able to find the package and secure it to the sled once more.¹⁶

Kaasen had initially been instructed to stop at Point Safety and transfer the antitoxin to Ed Rohn, who was chosen to run it the rest of the way to Nome. When he arrived, he noticed that the lights were out in the cabin. He realized that Rohn, who was not expecting Kaasen until the next morning, had gone to sleep. Kaasen debated waking Rohn to give him the serum. After considering how long it would take Rohn to prepare his team, and recognizing the dire conditions in Nome, Kaasen decided to bring the serum the final stretch himself.¹⁷

Arrival and Aftermath

Kaasen arrived in Nome at 5:30 in the morning on February 2nd, 1925. He knocked on Welch’s front door, waking him up while his dogs finally took a break. In five and a half days, 20 men and their dogs had covered 674 miles in blizzard conditions and delivered life-saving diphtheria antitoxin to a town on the verge of an epidemic.¹⁸

When Welch opened the package he was horrified to find that the 300,000 units of antitoxin were frozen solid. After radiogramming the Public Health Service, however, he was assured that it could be thawed and used effectively. He began treating victims immediately and on February 21st the epidemic was declared over and the quarantine lifted. It had been just over a month since Welch diagnosed the first case of diphtheria.¹⁹ The serum run had been successful, and Welch and his staff were able to effectively treat the disease.

The crisis faced in Nome spurred the government into action. The Public Health Service shipped a second batch of 1,100,000 antitoxin to Seward, Alaska on the S. S. Alameda. They were taken to Nenana by train, and from there they were transported to Nome by yet another dogsled relay. Many of the mushers that participated in the first serum run likely took part in the second, however because the country’s fascination with Nome died out after Kaasen’s arrival, their names were not recorded. In addition to the new shipment of serum, the epidemic pushed the Post Office to begin planning for an effective airmail service in Alaska. ²⁰ The diphtheria epidemic and the subsequent relay race to Nome sparked fundamental changes in how Alaska was connected to the contiguous United States.

The mushers themselves were rewarded for their efforts, with each one receiving $18.66 from a public donation fund. Additionally, the Territory of Alaska paid them $25 for each day that they were on the trail. Finally, the H. K. Mulford Company, the producer of the antitoxin, sent each of the mushers a medal and sent Gunnar Kaasen an additional $1,000.²¹ However, this reward, along with Kaasen’s overall involvement in the race, proved to be controversial.

The Battle for Credit

Kaasen’s decision to bypass Ed Rohn and deliver the serum himself is still debated. He claimed that he made this choice in order to get the serum to Nome as fast as possible, however Rohn, Leonhard Seppala, and some Nome residents felt that he wanted to earn the good publicity that came with his delivery. The $1,000 he received for his efforts did not help his case.²² What may have been more damaging, however, was the movie deal he signed by the end of the month.

At a time when movies were just beginning to become popular in America, Kaasen and Balto travelled to the contiguous United States on a press tour for their film. At the end of the tour they saw the dedication of the famed Balto statue erected in Central Park. Many claim that this is evidence of Kaasen’s desire for glory, however due to his introverted nature both at home and along the press tour, some argue that the Mayor of Nome may have pressured him into accepting the deal.²³ Regardless, Kaasen’s decision to take the serum to Nome himself and the lasting debate surrounding it demonstrate the questions surrounding glory in the race.

One man who always questioned Kaasen’s decision was Leonhard Seppala. For years, he remained angry that Balto was given the credit he felt belonged to his dog, Togo. After all, Togo and his team had covered more distance than any other team that participated in the run, including their treacherous trip across Norton Bay. Seppala was particularly upset when some newspapers falsely attributed Togo’s impressive run to Balto. In his memoir, Seppala wrote that:

“I hope I shall never be the man to take away credit from any dog or driver who participated in that run. We all did our best. But when the country was roused to enthusiasm over the serum run driver, I resented the statue to Balto, for if any dog deserved a special mention it was Togo.”

Salisbury, The Cruelest Miles, 248-249.

Significance

The Failures of Technology

The Nome serum run took place during a time of great technological improvements. Lynn Dumenil’s book The Modern Temper demonstrates this, including the 64% increase in industrialization over the decade as a whole. Both the chemical and automobile industries played a role in the technological boom of the 1920s.²⁴ The former had an important impact on the serum run, particularly because the H. K. Mulford Company manufactured the diphtheria antitoxin.²⁵ However, the transportation advancements that were dispersing throughout the mainland United States at this time, for example paved roads and cars, were not yet available in the more rural areas of the country. The serum run to Nome shows that in spite of recent improvements in transportation technology, these developments were not yet able to help those outside of the increasingly urban contiguous United States.

The Success of Syndicated News

While transportation improvements proved unable to affect the Nome serum run, improvements in newspaper technology drew people from all parts of the nation into following the race to Nome. Dumenil writes that “because of developments in technology and distribution, [newspapers] increasingly consisted of syndicated news information and photographs.”²⁶ This system consisted of a single news story being written and distributed to papers across the country. Dr. Welch’s account of the diphtheria epidemic, written a week after the serum arrived, is one example of this. He wrote an article for United Press that was sent to and published by newspapers all the way from Nebraska to New Jersey. This followed weeks of news coverage detailing Nome’s struggles, as newspapers from all 48 of the recognized states at that time, plus the territories of Alaska and Hawai’i, published stories about the dog sled relay. In addition to the increase in syndicated news, this shows the uptick in national news coverage that people were consuming during the 1920s.²⁷ People in every part of the country followed the serum run, regardless of how far they were from Alaska. Overall, in spite of transportation technology’s inability to assist in the race itself, advancements in newspaper technology during the 1920s allowed Americans to track what was happening in Nome.

Citations

Bibliography

• Alger, Anna. “100 Years After the Great Serum Run, Balto’s Legacy Endures.” Cleveland Museum of Natural History. January 23, 2025. Accessed March 18, 2026. https://www.cmnh.org/learn/science-blog/2025/01/23/100-years-after-the-great-serum-run-baltos-legacy-endures.
• Associated Press. “Diphtheria Rages at Nome, Alaska.” Olean Evening Herald (Olean, NY), January 28, 1925.
• Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang. 1995.
• Salisbury, Gay and Laney Salisbury. The Cruelest Miles: The Heroic Story of Dogs and Men in a Race Against an Epidemic. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 2003.
• Stokes, E. D. “The Race for Life.” Public Health Reports 111, no. 3. (1996): 272-275. Accessed March 18, 2026. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4598014.
• Ungermann, Kenneth A. The Race to Nome: The Story of the Heroic Alaskan Dog Teams That Rushed Diphtheria Serum to Stricken Nome in 1925. New York: Harper & Row. 1963.
• Wilson, William H. “The Serum Dash to Nome, 1925.” Alaska Journal 16 (1986): 250-259.
• Welch, Curtis. “Nome’s Solitary Physician Tells Gripping Story of Diphtheria Epidemic.” The Times (Trenton, NJ) February 8, 1925.

Suggested Resources

• Rozell, Ned. “Sled Dogs Were Lifesavers in the Serum.” Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Accessed March 19, 2026. https://www.gi.alaska.edu/alaska-science-forum/sled-dogs-were-lifesavers-serum-run.
• “Serum Run of 1925.” Alaska State Archives. Accessed March 19, 2026. https://archives.alaska.gov/education/serum.html. 
• “Serum Run Resources.” University of Alaska Fairbanks. Accessed March 29, 2026. https://library.uaf.edu/aprca/research-guides/serum-run.

Grace Martinez

Grace Martinez is a Ramapo college history major with a minor in museum & exhibition studies.

www.linkedin.com/in/%20grace-martinezz

The great Mississippi flood of 1927 remains one of the most devastating natural disasters in the history of the United States, but more specifically in the southern region. The Mississippi River overflowed and eventually reached unprecedented levels of water rising, causing widespread flooding that affected hundred and thousands of people and led to drastic economic and social consequences that would shake the very core of America. The Mississippi flood reached over 23,000 square miles of land that was submerged in water, displacing over 700,000 people and in the process, killing at least 1,000.

The Flood of 1927 was a result of heavy rainfall that occurred in the Mississippi in April of 1927, although signs of the flood started in January of that year. The Mississippi River is known as one of the largest and most popular river systems in North America, swelled to extreme record levels as a result of the excessive downpour during the spring season. The flooding began in late April and continued into May, affecting many states such as, Arkansa, Missouri, Kansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Illinois, and Texas. The river breached through the levees system and traveled through vast areas of land, which in turn would cause many people to evacuate and as a result would leave hundreds of thousands of people without a home.

The Flood of 1927 was a build up of poor land management that due to decades of bad practices to help prevent the flood that occurred, which at that time affected a rapid increase in population that lived in urban areas, and lack of infrastructure to control the river’s flow. The levee system was specifically designed to prevent flooding, it was not built to withstand the volume of water that was brought by the heavy rain, which was supposed to prevent disasters like this from occurring. Another element that was a cause of the flooding was the deforestation of the region, it led to increased soil erosion, further exacerbating the flooding. The federal government, was under the leadership of President Calvin Coolidge, who was slow to respond to the disaster that caused widespread flooding, while also causing destruction and hardships for many people during this time. The Flood of 1927 left a hopless impact on the southern United States, affecting millions of people. The people most affected by the flood were the farmers, because the flooding destroyed crops, homes, and infrastructure, and caused a huge economic impact not just on the region, but the entire United States. Many African American communities dealt with heavy racisim and were treated like outcasts, who were already marginalized and living in low-lying areas, that took the brunt of the disaster. The people who were displaced would seek shelter, make shift camps or flee to higher ground just to have some sort of safety from the flooding that ravaged through their towns.

The aftermath of the Mississippi flood of 1927 shined a light on the inequalities and racial disparities that African Americans were forced to face in the United States. Many African Americans were left to fend alone without access to food, water, or medical care, as most of the relief efforts focused on white communities. The federal government’s heavily failed the victims during the flood, but it did a horrific job when it left the African American community to survive without help. The inadequate response to the disaster highlighted these inequalities, as resources were lopsidedly allocated based on race, social, and economical status. In a way, the flood helped showcase just how far behind America was when it came to the treatment of its people (especially African American). The flood in a weird way was just like the racism America would bury on African Americans and pretend like they didn’t exist, just as the flood covered the land that was once visible with grass, streets, and homes.

People

One of the most important people during the Flood of 1927 was Herbert Hoover, who was serving as the Secretary of Commerce. Hoover was in charge of providing and coordinating the federal response to the disaster by President Coolidge to help bring relief to the people most affected by the flood. Despite the slow and initial delays in providing aid, Hoover eventually had enough resources and established the Mississippi River Commission. Hoover would travel through the Mississippi Valley to help raise money for the relief efforts to help start the rebuild of the states affected by the flood. He raised over 17 million dollars (equivalent to 239.50 million today). All of the hard work that Hoover put in to help would not go unrecognized because it was a crucial step, that eventually lead to him being elected as the 31st president of the United States in 1929. Although, many people still claim that Hoover didn’t really help aid the states damaged by the floods, instead gained as much power as possible.

The most important influential figure during the flood was James Eads, a highly regarded engineer who had experience working on many river projects in the Mississippi Valley. James specialized in hydraulic engineering and levee construction, which proved to be priceless and much needed during the crisis. The designs he created made for a much better levees with more strength and it would mitigate the impact of the flooding in certain parts of the river. The contributions that James Eads had on the flood control would help launch the groundwork for future natural disasters that can be prevented to help stop flooding. It also helped provide a much needed safety practices that were once failing to meet quality standards, to help ensure that a disaster like this can be avoided.

The third important figure who emerged during the aftermath of the Flood of 1927 was Robert Russa Moton, was an African American teacher and civil rights activist. Moton was appointed by President Coolidge to lead the Colored Advisory Commission, he was tasked with providing and overseeing relief efforts for African American flood victims. Moton was one of the few people who fought for equal treatment and access to aid for all people, communities, regardless of race. His efforts helped draw much needed attention to the racial inequalities that the flood exposed and paved the way for everyone to take action help start a change in America.

Just like James Eads, Arthur E. Morgan who specialized in flood managment, was an engineer and public administrator who played an important role in shaping water resource policies in the United States, to assist in preventing disaster like floods from taking place. Morgan was the chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority and he would oversee all safety procedures and practices that were taking place in his assigned region. Eventually Morgan would become head of the Public Works Administration, where he implemented major design and ideas to many projects in order to prevent future flooding disasters. Morgan’s visionary approach was ahead of it’s time and would change the way flood control emphasized sustainable practices, as well as have communities being involved, which spearheaded the foundation for modern water management strategies that are still used to this very day.

Technology and Social Justice

The Flood of 1927 is famous for destroying homes, killing thousands, and displacing over a million people from their homes, but it also highlights social justice, as well as environmental concerns. Environmentalists during this time issued the flood as a warning sign of the consequences that unchecked development can cause on when it came to deforestation in vulnerable areas. The key to having a successful operation is by having sustainable land management practices and investments in flood control infrastructure that will help prevent or drastically aid in avoiding disasters in the future. People who fought for social justice have highlighted the racial disparities exposed by the flood, showcasing the need for equality by providing equal help to all people not just a certain race. Relief efforts during this period were unfair and cruel because the government was more concerned about the white community instead of all people who were affected.

The flood allows to focus on future developments related to flood management and being able to plan for disasters in a timely manner. That will be crucial and critical in preventing future events that can cause devastating effects. Through the many years of advances in technology, there are much better practices in place to help mitigate such disasters than ever before, but it doesn’t mean that it can’t happen again. Technology uses equipment such as remote sensing which can help detect early warning signs when something seems off or is in the territory of causing destruction, which in turn can lead to using predictive modeling in order to better prepare for a disaster that is going to occur. There needs to be substantial urban planning when it comes to flooding because urban areas are at the most risk when it comes to flood zones. Additionally, having community engagement and more government involvement or funding that would be an essential step in developing resilient communities that can withstand natural disasters, while also being able to adapt in any circumstance.

Timeline

• April 15, 1927 – Flooding starts to occur and leaves and its tributaries can’t withstand anymore of the downpour, leading to widespread devastation with water covering miles of land and destroying everything in its path.
• April 16, 1927 – President Calvin Coolidge appoints Herbert Hoover to oversea the disaster caused by the flooding, while also bringing federal aid to the communities.
• April – May 1927 – Engineers from the army corp were called upon to help reinforce levee systems, as well as the national guard who was called upon to provide emergency services and rescue operations for flood victims, while also providing them with aid.
• May 1927 – Floodwaters began to recede, which showed the effects of the devastation it left behind, and the focus switched to helping people get aid, shelter or medical assistance to the effected communities.
• June 1927 – Repair efforts were on the way to help rebuild communities which was supported by federal funding assistance and many charitable organizations.
• Summer – Fall 1927 – Reconstruction of the communities would continue and a new levee system was being built to prevent future flooding with the help of a few renowned engineers.

Significance

The 1920s also known as “the roaring twenties” was a time where culture was changing, the economy was booming, jazz music was at its peak, companies created new products such as washing machines and radios, and women were become independent. Even though the 1920s is known as one of the best decades America has ever seen, it still came with many flaws. Social justice was none existent during this time except for a few brave civil rights activists who fought for African American rights. When the flood occurred it showcased just how poorly the African community was being treated, and were the last one’s to receive aid from the government causing hardships and isolation for people of color. Since this time we have come along way as a nation with everyone being equal, sure there needs to be some more changes, but this is a significant sign we are headed in the right direction for people of all races. Even though the economy was booming the late 1920s, it would take a hit because of the flooding that took place. Many farmers during this time lost their livelihood’s because their land and crops had been destroyed. This is significant because even during the most recent disasters, the economy will most likely take a hit because of the relief effort and the massive funding needed to help rebuild many communities that are effected by such floods. This leads us to environment awareness because before the flood occurred, cities were not taking proper steps to ensure land management which in turn lead to thousand of lives being lost and millions losing their homes. The flood helped show how important it is to be prepared, have a plan, improve technology and build better infrastructures to help prevent flooding. We see the significant role environmental awareness plays in our society today, even world leaders spend millions upon millions to help fight the battle of global warming, but more importantly we see the policies and changes America has made for it’s people to be united, as well as make drastic changes to help be prepared to fight or prevent natural disasters that might occur in the future.

Resources

Anon. The Mississippi Flood of 1927 -. https://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/the-mississippi-flood-of-1927.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2009. Mississippi River flood of 1927 | Description & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. 11. February. https://www.britannica.com/event/Mississippi-River-flood-of-1927.

National Guard. The Great Flood of 1927.

 Anon. A retreat fit for a president – Lesson 1.

NOLA.com. 2016. 1927 Mississippi River flood in rare vintage film. Video. YouTube. 15. March. 

Thornton, Mark. 2020. Katrina and the Great Flood of 1927. Mises Institute. 21. December. 

Anon. Arthur Morgan. Dayton Innovation Legacy. 

Don Juan is a 1926 American silent film directed by Alan Crosland and produced by Warner Bros.  It stars John Barrymore in the title role of the legendary Spanish seducer and womanizer, Don Juan. The film follows a legendary Spanish lover as he pursues romantic adventures and duels with rivals in 16^th century Spain.  The film begins with Don Juan, the protagonist, seeking to avenge the death of his father by challenging “Count de Polan” to a duel.  After defeating Polan, Don Juan is wounded but manages to escape with the help of his loyal servant, Pedrillo.  Fleeing to a nearby monastery for refuge, Juan encounters a beautiful novice named Adrianna and is instantly smitten by her, however Adrianna has taken a vow of chastity and rebuffs his advances.  Undeterred, Don Juan continues his escapades, charming and seducing numerous women along the way.  He also becomes entangles in a political conspiracy involving the King of Spain, who suspects him of treason.  Juan’s adventures lead him to encounter various characters, including a jealous husband, a vengeful suitor, and a lecherous Duke among others.  As the story unfolds, Don Juan’s pursuit of Adrianna becomes more desperate, and he faces numerous challenges in his quest to win her heart. Ultimately, Don must confront his own reckless behavior and come to terms with the consequences of his actions.

Don Juan is considered a commercial and critical success since its release in 1926, and it remains a landmark film in the history of cinema, and a film that has made a significant impact on the development of the motion picture industry. Don Juan was also one of the most expensive films made up to that time, with a budget of over one million dollars.  The film’s lavish sets, costumes, and special effects were highly praised by critics and audiences alike. In addition to Barrymore, the film features a talented cast of actors, including Mary Astor, Warner Oland, and Myrna Loy in one of her earliest film appearances.

The premiere of Don Juan was a star-studded event that took place on August 6, 1926, at the Warner Bros. Theater in New York City.  The event was attended by many celebrities of the time, including John Barrymore, as well as Gloria Swanson, Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, and Charlie Chaplin who were all stars of the era.  The premiere was a highly anticipated event, due to it being the first film with synchronized sound effects and musical score.  The event was covered extensively by the press, and fans lined the streets to catch a glimpse of the stars as they arrived.  The film was well-received by the audience, who were impressed by the film’s innovation, technology, and advanced style for the time.  The Warner Bros. Theatre was located at 1700 Broadway in New York City, and had a seating capacity of around 3,500 people.  It was one of the largest and most luxurious theaters of the time and was equipped with all of the latest technologies of the era.  The theater remained a popular venue for several decades, hosting many premieres and events over the years until it was demolished in 1952.  The exact number of people that attended the premiere of Don Juan is unknown, but it is estimated that it was a fully sold out event hosting at least 3,400 people.  The success of the film in its initial run at the box office demonstrated the potential profitability of sound films and encouraged studios to invest in sound technology. Don Juan pushed the boundaries of what was possible in film production, and use of technologies at this time.

Significance

The film is notable for a number of reasons.  It was the first feature-length film with synchronized sound effects, including a synchronized musical score and sound effects in selected scenes.  However, it did not include any spoken dialogue, as that technology was not yet available. The production of Don Juan (1926) required the development of new technology, including the Vitaphone, elaborate special effects (for the time), and advanced camera techniques.  These advancements paved the way for future innovations in filmmaking. 

The film used a sound-on-disc system called the Vitaphone, which synchronized a 16-inch phonograph record with the film’s projection.  The record contained the synchronized musical score and sound effects that were played back during the film’s screening.  The synchronization was achieved by timing the playback of the sound disc with the projection of the film, using a special device called a “projector interlock”.  A projector interlock refers to a safety mechanism in film projectors that prevents multiple projectors from running at the same time, which could have caused damage to film prints at the time.  The interlock system was designed to ensure that only one projector would be running during a film screening.

Vitaphone allowed films to add synchronized sound to a motion picture.  It was developed by the Western Electric Company and was introduced in 1926, in the fil Don Juan.  The system was used primarily in the 1920’s and early 30’s, before it was surpassed by better technology.  Many classic films from this period, such as The Jazz Singer (1927) and The Singing Fool (1928), used the Vitaphone system to add synchronized sound to their musical number and sound effects. However, because the Vitaphone system relied on separate sound discs, it was limited in its ability to incorporate dialogue, and films using this system remained silent with musical accompaniment and sound effects.  It wasn’t until the development of sound-on-film technology in the late 1920’s that synchronized dialogue was invented, that films began to have dialogue sound. While the Vitaphone has been long surpassed by more advanced technology, many of the Vitaphone discs have survived and have been preserved, providing a unique glimpse into the early days of sound in cinema. This system was revolutionary at the time and paved the way for the development of sound in motion pictures. 

The 1920’s was a decade known for its cultural, social, and political changes and the film reflected some of the attitudes and values of the time.  It also reflected attitudes and values of the time, as well as some of the challenges that people of the era faced.  One example of this is gender roles, such as the “male gaze”, where women were objectified and seen as objects of male desire.  This was a common attitude in the 1920’s, as traditional gender roles were being challenged and new forms of sexual expression were emerging. Another example is political instability.  The film’s plot revolves around political intrigue and the struggle for power between various factions. This was a representation of the political struggles of the 1920’s, as the aftermath of World War One and the economic challenges of the time created by social unrest and political tension.  A third example is economic prosperity and excess. The film’s lavish sets, costumes, and special effects were a reflection of the prosperity of the 1920’s, as the United States experienced a period of economic growth and prosperity.  The film’s excess reflected the era’s tendency towards extravagance and opulence.

John Barrymore’s portrayal of Don Juan also set a new standard for leading men in Hollywood.  He was suave, sophisticated, romantic, and his performance helped establish the archetype of the “silver screen” hero. The character of Don Juan, who was a legendary seducer and womanizer, became a popular figure in literature and drama throughout the 1920’s.  The film helped cement the character’s place in popular culture and inspired other films, plays, and novels that featured similar characters.

Sources

Hall, M. (1926, August 7). Vitaphone stirs as talking movie; new device synchronizing sound with action impresses with its realistic effects. noted musicians heard provides orchestral accompaniment to photoplay “Don Juan,” with John Barrymore. The New York Times. Retrieved April 11, 2023, from https://www.nytimes.com/1926/08/07/archives/vitaphone-stirs-as-talking-movie-new-device-synchronizing-sound.html

In The Good Old Days Of Classic Hollywood. (2015, June 25). The Classic Movie History Project Blogathon: Don Juan (1926 ) and the introduction to vitaphone. In The Good Old Days Of Classic Hollywood. Retrieved April 11, 2023, from https://crystalkalyana.wordpress.com/2015/06/25/the-classic-movie-history-project-blogathon-don-juan-1926-and-the-introduction-to-vitaphone/

A tale of romance and derring-do (with synchronized music and sound effects): A study of don juan (1926). Silver Screen Classics. Retrieved April 11, 2023, from https://silverscreenclassicsblog.wordpress.com/2021/06/26/a-tale-of-romance-and-derring-do-with-synchronized-music-and-sound-effects-a-study-of-don-juan-1926/

Wikimedia Foundation. (2023, April 4). Don Juan (1926 film). Wikipedia. Retrieved April 11, 2023, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Juan_(1926_film)

Fun Fact: The leftover wood from the production of the Ford Model T was recycled into charcoal, and sold as Ford Charcoal. When Ford stopped using wood for production, the charcoal branch became its own company, known today as Kingsford Charcoal.

The Ford Model T made a massive impact on the lives of Americans and how we move around in society. Prior to the Model T, personal transport that wasn’t a horse or bicycle was only for the very rich. If you wanted to go far, you took a train. Then the Model T became the most popular car in the United States, it also set the stage for the concept of the personal car to reshape our cities and towns. Prior to this, the roads were generally paved dirt or gravel, and had no clear direction or flow besides rails for streetcars or businesses that lined the streets. Streets, especially the main roads in towns, were social places, they were full of people milling about and conducting their lives. The people that worked in these cities and towns also lived very close to where they worked, since traveling daily long distances on horseback was not easy, and the only other option was a train, which would get expensive over time, or bicycle, which was not easy either on the unpaved surfaces. When the cars started to hit the roads en masse, the infrastructure around them had to change. Roads changed materials and got tougher, smoother, faster. Cars zipping through streets had to stay in dedicated lanes, people could not freely move across streets without the chance of getting run over. Another consequence of the popularity of the car was the rise of the suburbs. Since it was not substantially easier to cover longer distances without the need to follow a train schedule, people began to move farther away from their places of work, where they could have larger horses and properties compared to the apartments in the cities. This would evolve more and more over time to the structures we have now, large cities where people work then surrounding suburbs where they live, with highways to connect them. The Model T and its popularity was the catalyst for the advent of the personal car, and in the process, revolutionized how we go about our lives. 

The fifteen millionth Ford Model T is preserved today, part of The Henry Ford Museum collection and is currently displayed at the Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan. You can learn more about it here.

Sources:

“First and Fifteen Millionth Fords.” Detroit Free Press. May 27, 1927.

“The Model T and American Life.” The New Atlantis, no. 22 (2008): 115–115. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43152452.

Wells, Christopher W. “The Road to the Model T: Culture, Road Conditions, and Innovation at the Dawn of the American Motor Age.” Technology and Culture 48, no. 3 (2007): 497–523. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40061274.

gregk

Gregory Kruimer is currently enrolled in his senior year at Ramapo College as a History major.

Delta Airlines is one of the world’s largest airlines, with a rich history spanning over 90 years. Founded in 1924, Delta has grown from a crop-dusting operation to a global airline that serves more than 300 destinations in over 50 countries. This post will explore the history of Delta Airlines, from its early beginnings to its current status as a major player in the airline industry.

Early Years

Delta Airlines was founded in 1925 as Huff Daland Dusters, a crop-dusting company based in Macon, Georgia. The company’s founder, Collette E Woolman recognized the potential for commercial aviation and decided to expand the company’s operations to include delivery and passenger flights. 

Huff Daland, Delta, played a significant role during the 1920s and continues to play a vital role in commerce. During the 1920s crop dusting was part of the reason for the decline in crop prices advancing the great depression. Crop dusters allowed farmers to tend to larger land plots leading to increased production. The overproduction of food drove down food prices and during an economic depression the demand for food went down and everyone suffered. Looking forward to after the great depression, the practice of crop dusting is still in practice in 2023, to plant crops over a large spread of land and mass produce crops. The importance of crop dusting is cited by different papers during the 1920s. In 1925 Alabama newspaper, The Montgomery Advertiser, printed a story about failing cotton crops due to weevils and offered Huff Dusters as a solution to the problem, “foretelling of the greatest weevil emergence in history…State department of agriculture arrangements have been completed with the Huff Daland Dusters, Inc., to give a demonstration of airplane crop dusting.” The demonstration in Alabama proved to be successful. A few months later a Pennsylvania based newspaper, The Bristol Courier, published a story about Huff Daland’s agriculture contracts and tract record, “Airplanes of Huff Daland Dusters Inc., will protect 65,000 acres of cotton this year from insect pests.” The paper also talked about how Huff Daland Dusters are holding contracts in the south not only because of their ability to protect crops but also for their ability to bring manufacturing jobs to rural areas. “At the new airplane factory of the Huff Daland Company which is to be located in a portion of the merchant shipyard here, airplanes will be built to be used in dusting the Southern cotton fields.”

The success of Huff Daland Crop Dusting allowed the company to transition to commercial flights in addition to crop dusting. In 1928 The New York Times published an article titled, “Flying School Started Here”. The article is about Huff Daland hiring and training commercial pilots to operate the crop dusters while reassuring readers about the safety of aircrafts, “The Huff Daland Dusters, Inc., …have conducted dusting operations all over the south, in Mexico, and in Peru. Not a single fatality has occurred in any of their dusting operations, although this is considered one of the most hazardous types of flying.” The positive news coverage of Huff Daland Dusters gives the brand credibility as safe, professional, and efficient. Huff Daland soon changed its name to Delta airline and began doing passenger and cargo flights in addition to crop dusting. 

In 1928 Huff Daland  expanded into passenger flights from just crop dusting and changed its name to Delta air service. Delta was the first airline to allow passenger flights and they started with airports from Dallas Texas to Jackson Mississippi. The next year Delta expanded across the south to include services to Georgia and Delta air service changed its name to Delta Air Corporation. Starting in 1934 Delta began contracting work for the US Post office delivering mail via air from various post offices. Bringing mail via airplane significantly reduced the time it takes for people to receive mail and the cost to transport it long distance. In 1935 Delta began running night flights setting the current standard of nocturnal flights.

World War II (During and Post)

During World War II, Delta Air Lines was contracted by the U.S. military to provide air transport services. After the war, Delta resumed its commercial operations and continued to expand its route network. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the airline began flying to destinations in Europe and South America, cementing its status as a major international carrier.

Expansion and Innovation

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Delta Air Lines continued to expand its route network and modernize its fleet. In 1955, the airline introduced the first commercial jet service with the Douglas DC-8, which was faster and more efficient than the propeller-driven planes that had dominated the industry up to that point. Delta also introduced stewardesses in the Delta DC-8 and DC-9 jets. During the 1970s, Delta faced increasing competition from other airlines, including low-cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines. To remain competitive, the airline began to focus on providing high-quality service and amenities to its passengers, including upgraded seats and in-flight meals.

Mergers and Acquisitions

In the 1980s and 1990s, Delta Air Lines underwent a series of mergers and acquisitions that helped to cement its status as one of the world’s largest airlines. In 1984, the airline merged with Western Airlines, adding routes to the western United States and Hawaii.

In 2000, Delta merged with Korean Air, creating a strategic alliance that allowed the two airlines to share routes and resources. Continuing throughout the 200s, Delta Air Lines continued to expand its operations and modernize its fleet. The airline added new routes to Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, and began to focus on providing more personalized service to its passengers. Looking forward to 2012, Delta acquired a 49% stake in Virgin Atlantic Airways, giving the airline access to new routes and expanding its presence in Europe. Six years later in 2018 when climate change became a primary concern for businesses, Delta announced plans to purchase a total of 20 new Airbus A350 aircraft, which are more fuel-efficient, and have a lower carbon footprint than previous models and methods of air transportation.

Looking forward Delta airlines created a demand for more pilots which worked in both peace and war time. During World War 1 America started to build its air force then in a time of peace from 1919–1939 the United States invested in aviation and during World War 2 the USAAF peaked with approximately one million airplanes. The grand size of the United States Army Air Force can be attributed to companies such as Delta that managed to mass produce planes and pilots.   

Sources Used

     Downs, Eldon W., and George F. Lemmer. “Origins of Aerial Crop Dusting.” Agricultural History 39, no. 3 (1965): 123–35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3740251.

  Federico, Giovanni. “Not Guilty? Agriculture in the 1920s and the Great Depression.” The Journal of Economic History 65, no. 4 (2005): 949–76. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3874910

https://www.newspapers.com/image/413687705/?terms=Huff%20Daland&match=1

https://www.newspapers.com/image/82051137/?terms=Huff%20Daland&match=1

https://news.delta.com/deltas-history-dusting-crops-connecting-world

KC

Ramapo College senior majoring in history. My concentration is in the 1920s machine politics in major cities. In particular the unsustainability of the machine politic model.

The first commercial radio broadcast announced the results of the 1920 Presidential election and aired on November 2, 1920 from Pittsburgh, PA. At the time of the broadcast 8ZZ was the station’s call sign, KDKA served as an alternate call sign for the station. KDKA was the first commercially licensed radio station. It aired from Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, a private company that developed radio technology.

When the United States entered WWI the government entered a contract with the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. The government sought improvement in radio technology for wartime purposes. At this time the government instructed civilian radio stations to pause. Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing became the only company given permission to develop and operate radio stations during the war as per their government contract.

War-time experiments conducted by Westinghouse radio technicians revolved around vacuum tubes that allowed audio communication. John Ambrose Fleming originally invented vacuum tubes in 1904 as an alternative to spark gap transmitters. Those were only capable of communicating morse code, which was limiting to general audiences. Once Fleming conceived vacuum tubes capable of audio transmission, morse code fell out of common use.

Origins of the Broadcast

The origins of the first commercial radio broadcast can be traced to the home garage of Frank Conrad. He was the leading engineer at Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. Prior to WWI he experimented with radio through station 8KX in his garage. When the government paused civilian radio stations, 8KX was among them. When the pause was lifted after the conclusion of WWI Conrad improved 8KX with the knowledge he gained from the wartime developments and operations at Westinghouse. On October 17, 1919 Conrad began broadcasting entertaining material from his 8KX garage station. He became widely renowned by radio enthusiasts of the area for this station; it was unconnected to his work for Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. 

Less than a year later in September 1920, Conrad’s personal experiments collided with his work for Westinghouse. On September 23, 1920 an ad placed in The Pittsburgh Press by a local department store announced “at home” radio receivers were available for purchase at ten dollars. On September 29, 1920, a notice published by The Pittsburgh Press informed readers of an “air concert” picked up by the radio receivers sold earlier that week. The concert of note was one of Conrad’s broadcasted from 8KX.

When Westinghouse’s contract with the government was nullified at the conclusion of WWI other companies and their radio stations, such as main competitor Radio Corp. of America formed by General Electric Company of Schenectady, New York, regained permission to resume operations. Westinghouse desired to establish the company as the main provider of radio communications nationally and internationally. Vice President Harry P. Davis saw an opportunity for company growth through the success of Conrad’s 8KX. Davis proposed that Westinghouse attach “at home” radio receivers to their products. He facilitated the development of regular radio programs out of Westinghouse as incentive for customers to purchase the receivers. Davis held a meeting with the “radio cabinet” of Westinghouse after he launched this project. At this meeting Davis requested an operating radio station by November for the purpose of broadcasting the election results to the public. 

KDKA

Westinghouse radio station, KDKA, was originally conceived in an effort to avoid business expenses through private radiotelegraph connections between different sister facilities of the East Pittsburgh location, Springfield, Massachusetts, Newark, New Jersey, and Cleveland, Ohio. Post Harry Davis’s request for a functioning station, a Limited Commercial Station license was issued to Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company on October 27, 1920. The serial number for the license was #174 and the identifying letters assigned were KDKA, thus the station was established.

This uncommon call sign emerged from unique circumstances. Starting in 1912, standard procedure was that stations east of Mississippi river received call signs that began with “W”. Westinghouse’s station license was awarded during a period of time where call signs from the “K” block, formerly assigned to ship stations, were redistributed to land stations. When standard procedure resumed, the licensing agency permitted KDKA to keep the call sign it was originally designated. Prior to the first commercial broadcast of the 1920 Presidential election, the station was given temporary authorization for operation as 8ZZ.

The Broadcast

Preparation for the election broadcast began with construction of an antenna and shack-like structure on the roof of Westinghouse’s East Pittsburgh facility. The antenna was made up of six wires ninety feet long and placed twenty feet apart. This structure was two hundred and ten feet off the ground. Frank Conrad and Donald G. Little constructed a one hundred watt vacuum-tube transmitter in addition to the massive antenna structure. 

Conrad planned to broadcast the election results from his own station 8KX with the American Radio Relay League. The league was a non profit organization made up of amateur radio enthusiasts. Westinghouse required Conrad’s efforts for a successful operation, and his original plan became the back-up. Thus on the day of the broadcast, November 2, 1920, Conrad stationed himself at his home garage with 8KX on standby in case transmitters failed at Westinghouse. The transmitters held up and the broadcast was successful, no alternative station necessary. The voice of Leo Rosenberg from Westinghouse’s publicity department was heard by all with “at home” radio receivers.

Radius of November 2, 1920 Broadcast

Significance

KDKA remains on the air to this day.

The successful broadcast of the election results made it so other events could air on the radio. On August 5, 1921 a baseball game aired on the radio for the first time. On October 8, 1921 the radio broadcasted a football game for the first time. After some time on May 4, 1925 President Coolidge’s inauguration aired to the public. Later that year on November 28, 1925 Barn Dance in Nashville, Tennessee aired. This radio broadcast evolved into “Grand Ole Opry,” the longest running radio broadcast in US history. That is just within five years of the initial broadcast. Communication and connection marginally improved on a global scale as a result of this breakthrough in radio technology. 

Popular “Pop” culture as we know it today originated in the 1920s because of the way radio allowed people to connect. Someone in California could experience Boston Red Soxs baseball games without leaving their home. Jazz enthusiasts in New York could experience country music from Nashville and vice versa. People connected through shared opinions and experiences brought to them by radio, thus fan-bases were born. A new type of relationship forged between civilians and public figures. One could argue influencers of today have radio to thank for their ability to connect with their audiences.

The Public gained a new source of entertainment, but also a new source of information in general. Information spread across the country, and across the world in a way it previously could not. The list of all events radio informed the public post-conception is endless. Families gathering around their radios turned into families gathering around their televisions. Now, radios are installed in cars and available on smartphones. Many aspects of life enjoyed today find their origins in the first commercial radio broadcast on November 2, 1920. 

KDKA remains on the air to this day. It can be listened to on stations 100.1 FM and 1020 AM.

Bibliography

“Amateur Radio Stations: 8KX Pittsburgh”, QST Magazine, September 1920, pages 32-34.

Bucher, E. E., General J. G. Harbord, David Sarnoff, Dr. F. B. Jewett, E. P. Edwards, Judge Stephen B. Davis, H. P. Davis, et al. The Radio Industry: The Story of Its Development. Chicago, Illinois: A.W. Shaw Company, 1928.

“File : KDKA – First Licence – October 27, 1920.Pdf – Wikimedia.” Accessed May 3, 2023. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:KDKA_-_first_licence_-_October_27,_1920.pdf. 

“History of Commercial Radio.” Federal Communications Commission. Accessed May 3, 2023. https://www.fcc.gov/media/radio/history-of-commercial-radio#:~:text=November%202%2C%201920,2%2C%201920.

O’Neal, James E. “Constructing the First ‘Real’ Radio Station.” Radio World, October 8, 2020. https://www.radioworld.com/columns-and-views/roots-of-radio/constructing-the-first-real-radio-station. 

“Video: Celebrating 100 Years of KDKA Radio.” audacy.com, November 2, 2020. https://www.audacy.com/kdkaradio/news/local/video-celebrating-100-years-of-kdka-radio. 

Urban, C. E., “The Radio Amateur”, Pittsburgh Gazette Times, September 26, 1920, Fifth section, page 10. Urban, C.E., “Wireless Telephone Here”, Pittsburgh Gazette Times, October 26, 1919, Sixth section, page 13.

Michelle Steidle

Michelle Steidle is a History Major at Ramapo College, graduating with the Class of 2023. She enjoys historical research, long walks on the beach, and a good joke.

Making Behind the Magic

Steamboat Willie was produced between July and September 1928, with an approximate budget of $5,000.( For comparison, according to Investopedia.com the average cost to produce a major studio movie has been around $65 million.) The animators were initially unsure if a sound cartoon could be convincing enough, so before creating a soundtrack, Disney arranged for a screening of the film with live sound to test the audience. Steamboat Willie was just partially done when this screening took place on July 29. In a space adjacent to Walt’s office, the audience stood. The movie projector was installed outside, and the film was projected through a window so that the projector’s sound did not interfere with the live sound. Ub Iwerks draped a bedsheet over the movie projector, behind which he set up a microphone and speakers for the audience. From behind the bedsheet, a live sound was made. Wilfred Jackson performed the music on a mouth organ, Ub Iwerks provided percussion with pots and pans, and Johnny Cannon provided sound effects with a variety of instruments, including slide whistles and spittoons for bells. Walt delivered the film’s sparse dialogue, which consisted mainly of grunts, screams, and squawks. They were ready for the crowd, which consisted of Disney employees and their wives, after many rehearsals. The audience’s reaction was overwhelmingly positive, giving Walt the courage to continue working on the film. “The effect on our small audience was nothing short of electric,” he later said of the first screening. They reacted to the combination of sound and motion almost instinctively. I figured they were joking when they said that. So they put me in the audience and re-enacted the scene. It was awful, but it was fantastic! It was also something different!” “I’ve never been so happy in my life,” Iwerks said. Nothing since has come near.” Walt moved to New York City to find a sound production company. He finally decided on Pat Powers’ Cinephone system, which Powers developed using a modified version of Lee De Forest’s Phonofilm system without crediting De Forest, a decision he later regretted. The Green Brothers Novelty Band arranged the music for the final soundtrack, which was conducted by Carl Edouarde. The band’s Joe and Lew Green also helped with the timing of the music for the film. On September 15, 1928, the first attempt to synchronize the recording with the film was a disaster. But with disaster there is always a success to follow, to fund a second recording, Disney had to sell his Moon roadster. The inclusion of a filmed bouncing ball to maintain the pace was a success. From there Disney was ready to fit the theaters with his first production staring a mouse driving a steamboat.

Synopsis of Short Film

Mickey Mouse is depicted as the captain of a steam river side-wheeler. He whistles “Steamboat Bill” and blows the boat’s three whistles cheerfully. Pete, the actual caption, appears soon after and tells Mickey to leave the bridge. Mickey gives Pete a raspberry. Pete tries to kick him, but Mickey sprints away just in time, and Pete kicks himself in the back. Mickey dashes down the stairwell, tripping over a bar of soap on the boat’s wall and landing in a bucket of water. Mickey throws the bucket at a parrot, who laughs at him. Pete, who has been watching it, takes the helm of the steamboat. He spits into the wind after biting off a piece of chewing tobacco. The spit flies backward, ringing the bell on the boat. Pete spits again, amused, but this time the spit strikes him in the ace, causing him to fuss. The steamboat picks up a cargo of different livestock at “Podunk Landing.” Minnie Mouse appears just as they are about to set off again, sprinting to catch the boat before leaving. Mickey misses her, so she chases the boat down the sea, where Mickey hooks the freight crane to her underwear and hoists her aboard. When Minnie lands on deck, she drops a ukulele and some sheet music for the song “Turkey in the Straw,” which a goat eats.

The two mice use the goat’s body as a record player, rotating its tail like a crank to play music. Mickey “plays” the animals like musical instruments, using various items on the boat as a percussion accompaniment. Mickey concludes by playing the song on a xylophone with the teeth and tongue of a donkey. Captain Pete isn’t entertained by the musical performance and assigns Mickey to peel potatoes. The same parrot laughed at him earlier appeasements in the porthole of the potato bin and laughs at him again. The mouse, enraged by the bird’s antics, throws a half-peeled potato at it, knocking into the river below. Mickey laughs as he sits next to the potatoes at the end of the movie.

Impact on the 1920s

Disney’s Steamboat Willie was the turnover of the movie industry for the 1920s. It was one of the first movie’s with sound incorporated which was huge for the time period. This short film was a breakthrough of animation in the 1920s. The birth of Steamboat Willie would change the movie industry forever not only with the birth of one of the most notorious Disney characters that we know and love but the birth of synchronized sound in the movie industry because of the breakthroughs that it had on audience’s in America during this time period.

Citations

“Moma Learning.” Accessed April 28, 2021. https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/walt-disney-ub-iwerks-steamboat-willie-1928/. 

Roberta Carbah

I am a Ramapo senior who is majoring in Elementary Education. I am taking this course because I want to be certified in Social Studies at the middle school level. I graduated from Bergen Community College in the Spring of ’19 with an associate’s in Early Childhood Education. Currently, I am working  at Starbucks as a Shift Supervisor until I obtain my degree from Ramapo.

In the twenty-first century, people often take their phones, laptops, and other forms of technology for granted. Yet, not too long ago, all people had for technology was the radio and the daily newspaper was their entertainment. The 1920s, a decade of extreme social, political, and economic change, also brought with another huge change. The way in which people consumed entertainment, news, and various other forms of media would drastically change in this decade. Yet, without a young boy from Utah, Philo Farnsworth, the 1920s may have never seen the birth of the television as we know it today. 

Philo Farnsworth

Philo Taylor Farnsworth was born on August 19, 1906 in southwestern Utah.¹ Most of his childhood was spent growing up in the community settled by his grandfather. In the small, log-structured home that Farnsworth spent his childhood in, there was nothing but a few modern convinces to make everyday life easier.² His parents, Lewis and Serena, had very little money and as a result, Farnsworth’s childhood home did not have electricity.³ However, when he was just twelve years old, Farnsworth’s family moved to a spacious ranch in Rigby, Idaho.⁴ Farnsworth’s family would be moving in with extended family but Farnsworth did not seem to mind, especially since his new home had electricity.⁵

The young boy had always dreamed of becoming an inventor but it was on the ranch that his obsession with electronic components began.⁶ At only fifteen, Farnsworth begged his high school chemistry teacher to give him special instruction and allow him to audit a senior-level class.⁷ Mr. Tolman agreed and quickly realized that the young Farnsworth had an incredible gift, his intelligence. Tolman was not the only high school teacher to see Farnsworth’s genius. After only two years of high school, Farnsworth began his academic career at the Brigham Young University.      

For many students, the transition from high school to college can be confusing and daunting. Yet for Farnsworth, the transition was almost seamless. The young boy took content-heavy college courses and focused on his main interest, electronics.⁸ While taking classes, Farnsworth played around with several ideas for a completely electronic television system.⁹ Unfortunately, the college career of the ambitious Farnsworth was cut short. At the end of his sophomore year, Farnsworth’s father passed away, forcing him to leave Brigham Young University and return home.¹⁰ Although his time in school was over, Farnsworth never stopped experimenting with electronic components and learning from them.  

The Dream

Evidently, Philo Farnsworth was not the first person to imagine the happenings of an electric television. As there were several others working hard to finish the exact same objective, a fully functioning electronic television. For example, Vladimir Zworykin, a Russian electrical engineer, had the skills, intelligence, and dreams for the project.¹¹ However, he was never successful in even building an all-electronic television prototype. The problem many inventors had, including Zworykin, was that they could not find a way to transmit the image data without a single mechanical aspect.¹² Unlike the others, Farnsworth was able to figure out how to create a fully functioning electronic television. Still, there was much in the way between Farnsworth and his goal.

At the same time that Farnsworth and the others were trying to develop an an electronic television, Farnsworth was developing as a person. Being so young, there were many other matters that preoccupied the young inventor. Farnsworth fell in love with a young women named Elma Gardner.¹³ Not too long after meeting, the two got married in 1926 in Utah.¹⁴ At the time, Farnsworth was only twenty years old and had much of his life as an inventor ahead of him. After a year of being married, the couple moved from Utah to San Francisco. This way, Farnsworth would be closer to the motion-picture community and have enough space and help to work on his inventions.¹⁵ Once settled in his loft “laboratory” in San Francisco, Farnsworth, with the help of his wife, a few assistants, and a couple of wealthy investors, got to work on the invention that would forever change his life.

The Television

As previously stated, Farnsworth was not the only individual to think of a fully electronic television. Yet, he was the first person to build a prototype and have successful transmission. On September 7, 1927, Farnsworth had his first successful transmission.¹⁶ He sent an image of a horizontal line to a receiver in another room, where the same horizontal line was displayed on a television screen.¹⁷ It was with his wife and assistant that Farnsworth watched the very first electronic television picture to ever be transmitted.

While his invention changed not only his life, but also the course of the 1920s, it also brought Farnsworth a great deal of pain. Zworykin, the Russian engineer, had a connection to the Radio Corporation of America, a powerful company at the time.¹⁸ Zworykin wanted the fame of being the inventor of the electronic television and the Radio Corporation of America did not want to pay Farnsworth for the right to manufacture the television sets that he had invented.¹⁹ Thus, making the duo a perfect evil pair. However, not everything went as Zworykin and the Radio Corporation of America had hoped. Farnsworth put up a fight and after an intense legal battle, the the U.S. Patent Office awarded priority of the invention to Farnsworth in 1934.²⁰ Tragically, his victory was short lived.

A Tragic Ending

Shortly after the second World War, Farnsworth’s patents expired and the Radio Corporation of America was quick to move in and buy the rights to them. As a result, Zworykin and the chief of the Radio Corporation of America took credit for Farnsworth’s work.²¹ They even went as far as declaring themselves the true inventors of the television.²² After losing all of his hard work, Farnsworth spiraled into a deep depression. He had to be admitted into several hospitals where he endured shock therapy because of his nervous breakdowns.²³ Farnsworth’s fragile state led him to develop a drinking problem and as if life could not be anymore unfair to the “Father of the Television”, Farnsworth’s new home in Maine burned to the ground in 1947.²⁴

After almost an entire lifetime of injustice and defeat, Philo Farnsworth, passed away in March of 1971 in a Salt Lake City hospital.²⁵ Farnsworth was sixty-four years old when he suffered cardiac arrest following a choking spell.²⁶ Farnsworth left behind his wife, his son, and 165 patents in his name when he passed.²⁷ To this day, Farnsworth struggles to receive the recognition he deserves as the true inventor of the electronic television.

Significance

Philo Farnsworth and his natural genius were instrumental to the 1920s. Without his ideas and knowledge on electronic components, the current hundred million televisions in the United States could look very different. Not only that, but when Farnsworth’s invention was first rolled out in the late 1920s, it drastically changed people’s sense of the world.²⁸ Being able to physically see politicians, celebrities, current news, sports games, and anything else one could imagine transformed the world forever. Much more than before, the public began to form opinions on matters based on how it looked. Fashion trends changed to emulate what was seen on the television and gory scenes of war could bring the viewer to the battlefield.

However, Farnsworth’s legacy is more than just his invention of the modern television. Farnsworth’s story is one that demonstrates both the embodiment and downfall of the golden American dream. In his lifetime, Farnsworth accomplished what others were struggling to complete. He was able to successfully create the world’s first completely electronic television. Yet, he barely received credit for his work because of a large company with money and power. His life’s work was stolen from him.

While many people like to view the 1920s as a decade of good times with jazz music in the background, there was also a lot of corruption and dishonestly. It is important to recognize that what the Radio Corporation of America did to Farnsworth happened to many other hardworking Americans.

Why Philo Farnsworth and the Invention of Television?

After a basic search on the invention of the television, it became obvious that its history was complex and confusing. After a little more digging, I found the true answer to the mystery and realized that even to this day, Farnsworth receives little, if any, recognition for his work towards the electronic television. Although more people are beginning to acknowledge Farnsworth, I wanted to give him his moment in history.

Bibliography

• Anthony, Andrew. “A History of Television, the Technology that Seduced the World – And me.” The Guardian online. September 7, 2013.
• “Elma Farnsworth, 98; Aided Husband in Developing Television.” Los Angeles Times online. May 5, 2006.
• Eschner, Kat. “The Farmboy Who Invented the Television.” Smithsonian Magazine online. August 28, 2017.
• Featured Image: J. Willard Marriott Digital Library at the University of Utah. “P.T. Farnsworth with his television receiver-1920 or 30.” Accessed March 2021.
• McPherson, Stephanie. TV’s Forgotten Hero: The Story of Philo Farnsworth. Minnesapols: Carolrhoda Books, October 1, 1996.
• “Philo T. Farnsworth, a Pioneer In Design of Television, Is Dead.” The New York Times online. March 13, 1971.
• Postman, Neil. “Philo Farnsworth.” TIME Magazine online. March 29, 1999.

Rachel Olivo

Rachel is a junior at Ramapo College of New Jersey taking Discovering Digital History in the Spring of 2021. She is studying History and Education and is looking forward to becoming a teacher after graduating.