Discovering the Epidemic

Established as a Gold Rush town in the late 1800s, Nome, Alaska was home to roughly 1,800 people in 1925.¹ Only one of them was a physician. Dr. Curtis Welch first encountered a suspected childhood diphtheria case in October of 1924, however since no one else in the child’s family was exhibiting symptoms of the highly contagious respiratory disease he dismissed it as a cold. The child died two days later, a tragedy Welch ascribed to malnutrition. On January 20th, however, he officially diagnosed a seven year old Indigenous child with diphtheria after noticing the distinctive smell of the disease. The only antitoxin serum Welch had on hand had expired five years earlier. Realizing that the child was unlikely to recover, he risked administering the expired serum. Welch did not observe any negative reaction to the antitoxin. However, his attempt at treatment was too late, and the child passed away. By this point, Welch was able to conclude that the expired serum, while not harmful, would not be effective enough to fight off an epidemic. He immediately notified the mayor of Nome and they formed an emergency Board of Health to enforce a town-wide quarantine.²

The Call for Help

Welch sent a telegram asking for help from the Public Health Service in Washington, D. C. The group was able to quickly locate 300,000 units of antitoxin in Anchorage, but they immediately ran into the issue of transportation. There were two small planes in Anchorage, however they had been disassembled for the winter. Even if they were functional, they would have likely been useless in the below freezing temperatures and 60 to 70 mile per hour winds of the Alaskan winter.³ Instead, the Board of Health and territorial Governor Scott Bone chose to transport the serum via dog sled along the Alaskan Mail Route, also called the Iditarod Trail.⁴ This route normally took 20 days for one team to complete, but this would have been far too long for Nome to wait. Instead, they decided on a relay team of mushers and their dog teams. With the help of the United States Signal Corps, which operated the Alaskan telegraph system, the Board of Health contacted 20 men who agreed to transport the antitoxin to Nome.⁵ On January 27th, the serum was delivered by train from Anchorage to Nenana. There, 674 miles away from Nome, the race began.⁶

The Great Race for Mercy

From the station at Nenana, William “Wild Bill” Shannon and his team took off towards Tolovana. The 52 miles he covered marked the first leg of the serum run. The race involved 20 men and over 150 dogs in total.⁷ These teams travelled in blizzard conditions, and one musher, Charlie Evans, later claimed that he ran through -64 degree weather during his leg of the trip.⁸ There was a great amount of diversity amongst the mushers, with many European immigrants, native born white Americans, members of Indigenous Athabascan tribes, and men of blended ancestry running on the trail. Details about individual mushers and their experiences during the serum run can be found in the map below.

The Eyes of the Nation

The diphtheria epidemic and the serum run itself became sources of national interest. Newspapers across the country, from Hawai’i to Maine, covered the efforts to save Nome. People eagerly followed the plight in Alaska, and newspaper companies attempted to reach Welch for comment. He later told the Surgeon General that he destroyed all the wires sent to him by the press, saying “I am a physician, not a press agent.”⁹ Still, the newspapers continued to allow people from every state to follow what was happening in the farthest reaches of the American territory. All of this took place in a decade that saw an uptick in interest in national news.

Leonhard Seppala and Togo

In an effort to quicken the relay, Nome’s Board of Health decided to add more mushers to the trip after it had already begun. Leonhard Seppala, a Norwegian immigrant and famed dog sled racer, had already been sent from Nome to Nulato to pick up the serum. He had no way of knowing that more teams had been added or that the serum had actually passed through Nulato already. His trip to Nulato wound up being very fortunate, however, as Henry Ivanoff’s dogs picked up the scent of reindeer only half a mile outside of Shaktoolik. The dogs refused to return to the trail, so upon seeing Seppala Ivanoff waved him down and transferred the serum to him. Seppala, whose team was led by the famous Siberian Husky Togo, headed towards Golovin in Ivanoff’s place.¹⁰.

On his way to Golovin, Seppala had to choose between travelling along the coastline of Norton Bay, adding hours to the run, or cutting 20 miles across the frozen Bay itself. The ice could crack at any time, potentially stranding him and his team on an ice drift. Worse, they could be plunged into the icy sea. Seppala, whose daughter Seigrid had contracted and recovered from diphtheria a few years earlier, decided to cut across the Bay.¹¹

Togo led Seppala’s team in a straight line across Norton Bay. All the while, the man himself listened carefully for the sound of cracking ice, though he could not be sure it was not covered by the howling wind. At one point, the strong gusts blew the sled sideways, taking the dogs with it. Seppala righted them and moved on. Finally, late in the evening, he and his dogs arrived at the shore of Norton Bay. They had successfully crossed the frozen sea. Seppala and his team stopped to rest in the shelter of his friend’s igloo overnight. A few short hours after the team came ashore, the ice of the bay they had just run across began to break. ¹²

Seppala and his team left the next morning. When they finally arrived in Golovin, they had travelled over 91 miles on the serum run.¹³ This was the longest distance covered by any individual team. While this remains the official length credited to Seppala’s team, it does not include the trip they took from Nome to Shaktoolik. In total, the dogs had actually run 268 miles within two days.¹⁴

Gunnar Kaasen and Balto

Seppala transferred the serum to Charlie Olson in Golovin, who then travelled 25 miles to Bluff. There, he handed it off to Norwegian-born musher Gunnar Kaasen and his team, led by the Siberian Husky Balto. The vsibility was so poor that Kaasen nearly directed his team to run straight through a river. He was stopped only by Balto’s refusal to move forward. Not long after they rerouted around the river, Seppala and his team came to Topkop Hill. With a 600-foot summit and no path around it, all mushers dreaded the landmark. Seppala had to get out of his sled and push it from behind while his team pulled it up the hill. During this process Kaasen completely lost sensation in his face.¹⁵

After climbing up and subsequently sledding down Topkop Hill, Kaasen and his team continued on towards Point Safety. However, while passing through Bonanza flats, the intense winds flipped over Kaasen’s sled and pulled several of his dogs with it. After righting the sled, he realized that the serum had been knocked off in the crash. In the low visibility Kaasen had to remove his mittens and search through the snow with his bare hands. Eventually, he was able to find the package and secure it to the sled once more.¹⁶

Kaasen had initially been instructed to stop at Point Safety and transfer the antitoxin to Ed Rohn, who was chosen to run it the rest of the way to Nome. When he arrived, he noticed that the lights were out in the cabin. He realized that Rohn, who was not expecting Kaasen until the next morning, had gone to sleep. Kaasen debated waking Rohn to give him the serum. After considering how long it would take Rohn to prepare his team, and recognizing the dire conditions in Nome, Kaasen decided to bring the serum the final stretch himself.¹⁷

Arrival and Aftermath

Kaasen arrived in Nome at 5:30 in the morning on February 2nd, 1925. He knocked on Welch’s front door, waking him up while his dogs finally took a break. In five and a half days, 20 men and their dogs had covered 674 miles in blizzard conditions and delivered life-saving diphtheria antitoxin to a town on the verge of an epidemic.¹⁸

When Welch opened the package he was horrified to find that the 300,000 units of antitoxin were frozen solid. After radiogramming the Public Health Service, however, he was assured that it could be thawed and used effectively. He began treating victims immediately and on February 21st the epidemic was declared over and the quarantine lifted. It had been just over a month since Welch diagnosed the first case of diphtheria.¹⁹ The serum run had been successful, and Welch and his staff were able to effectively treat the disease.

The crisis faced in Nome spurred the government into action. The Public Health Service shipped a second batch of 1,100,000 antitoxin to Seward, Alaska on the S. S. Alameda. They were taken to Nenana by train, and from there they were transported to Nome by yet another dogsled relay. Many of the mushers that participated in the first serum run likely took part in the second, however because the country’s fascination with Nome died out after Kaasen’s arrival, their names were not recorded. In addition to the new shipment of serum, the epidemic pushed the Post Office to begin planning for an effective airmail service in Alaska. ²⁰ The diphtheria epidemic and the subsequent relay race to Nome sparked fundamental changes in how Alaska was connected to the contiguous United States.

The mushers themselves were rewarded for their efforts, with each one receiving $18.66 from a public donation fund. Additionally, the Territory of Alaska paid them $25 for each day that they were on the trail. Finally, the H. K. Mulford Company, the producer of the antitoxin, sent each of the mushers a medal and sent Gunnar Kaasen an additional $1,000.²¹ However, this reward, along with Kaasen’s overall involvement in the race, proved to be controversial.

The Battle for Credit

Kaasen’s decision to bypass Ed Rohn and deliver the serum himself is still debated. He claimed that he made this choice in order to get the serum to Nome as fast as possible, however Rohn, Leonhard Seppala, and some Nome residents felt that he wanted to earn the good publicity that came with his delivery. The $1,000 he received for his efforts did not help his case.²² What may have been more damaging, however, was the movie deal he signed by the end of the month.

At a time when movies were just beginning to become popular in America, Kaasen and Balto travelled to the contiguous United States on a press tour for their film. At the end of the tour they saw the dedication of the famed Balto statue erected in Central Park. Many claim that this is evidence of Kaasen’s desire for glory, however due to his introverted nature both at home and along the press tour, some argue that the Mayor of Nome may have pressured him into accepting the deal.²³ Regardless, Kaasen’s decision to take the serum to Nome himself and the lasting debate surrounding it demonstrate the questions surrounding glory in the race.

One man who always questioned Kaasen’s decision was Leonhard Seppala. For years, he remained angry that Balto was given the credit he felt belonged to his dog, Togo. After all, Togo and his team had covered more distance than any other team that participated in the run, including their treacherous trip across Norton Bay. Seppala was particularly upset when some newspapers falsely attributed Togo’s impressive run to Balto. In his memoir, Seppala wrote that:

“I hope I shall never be the man to take away credit from any dog or driver who participated in that run. We all did our best. But when the country was roused to enthusiasm over the serum run driver, I resented the statue to Balto, for if any dog deserved a special mention it was Togo.”

Salisbury, The Cruelest Miles, 248-249.

Significance

The Failures of Technology

The Nome serum run took place during a time of great technological improvements. Lynn Dumenil’s book The Modern Temper demonstrates this, including the 64% increase in industrialization over the decade as a whole. Both the chemical and automobile industries played a role in the technological boom of the 1920s.²⁴ The former had an important impact on the serum run, particularly because the H. K. Mulford Company manufactured the diphtheria antitoxin.²⁵ However, the transportation advancements that were dispersing throughout the mainland United States at this time, for example paved roads and cars, were not yet available in the more rural areas of the country. The serum run to Nome shows that in spite of recent improvements in transportation technology, these developments were not yet able to help those outside of the increasingly urban contiguous United States.

The Success of Syndicated News

While transportation improvements proved unable to affect the Nome serum run, improvements in newspaper technology drew people from all parts of the nation into following the race to Nome. Dumenil writes that “because of developments in technology and distribution, [newspapers] increasingly consisted of syndicated news information and photographs.”²⁶ This system consisted of a single news story being written and distributed to papers across the country. Dr. Welch’s account of the diphtheria epidemic, written a week after the serum arrived, is one example of this. He wrote an article for United Press that was sent to and published by newspapers all the way from Nebraska to New Jersey. This followed weeks of news coverage detailing Nome’s struggles, as newspapers from all 48 of the recognized states at that time, plus the territories of Alaska and Hawai’i, published stories about the dog sled relay. In addition to the increase in syndicated news, this shows the uptick in national news coverage that people were consuming during the 1920s.²⁷ People in every part of the country followed the serum run, regardless of how far they were from Alaska. Overall, in spite of transportation technology’s inability to assist in the race itself, advancements in newspaper technology during the 1920s allowed Americans to track what was happening in Nome.

Citations

Bibliography

• Alger, Anna. “100 Years After the Great Serum Run, Balto’s Legacy Endures.” Cleveland Museum of Natural History. January 23, 2025. Accessed March 18, 2026. https://www.cmnh.org/learn/science-blog/2025/01/23/100-years-after-the-great-serum-run-baltos-legacy-endures.
• Associated Press. “Diphtheria Rages at Nome, Alaska.” Olean Evening Herald (Olean, NY), January 28, 1925.
• Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang. 1995.
• Salisbury, Gay and Laney Salisbury. The Cruelest Miles: The Heroic Story of Dogs and Men in a Race Against an Epidemic. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 2003.
• Stokes, E. D. “The Race for Life.” Public Health Reports 111, no. 3. (1996): 272-275. Accessed March 18, 2026. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4598014.
• Ungermann, Kenneth A. The Race to Nome: The Story of the Heroic Alaskan Dog Teams That Rushed Diphtheria Serum to Stricken Nome in 1925. New York: Harper & Row. 1963.
• Wilson, William H. “The Serum Dash to Nome, 1925.” Alaska Journal 16 (1986): 250-259.
• Welch, Curtis. “Nome’s Solitary Physician Tells Gripping Story of Diphtheria Epidemic.” The Times (Trenton, NJ) February 8, 1925.

Suggested Resources

• Rozell, Ned. “Sled Dogs Were Lifesavers in the Serum.” Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Accessed March 19, 2026. https://www.gi.alaska.edu/alaska-science-forum/sled-dogs-were-lifesavers-serum-run.
• “Serum Run of 1925.” Alaska State Archives. Accessed March 19, 2026. https://archives.alaska.gov/education/serum.html. 
• “Serum Run Resources.” University of Alaska Fairbanks. Accessed March 29, 2026. https://library.uaf.edu/aprca/research-guides/serum-run.

Grace Martinez

Grace Martinez is a Ramapo college history major with a minor in museum & exhibition studies.

www.linkedin.com/in/%20grace-martinezz

The 18th Amendment established Prohibition in 1920. Groups such as the Women’s Christian Temperance Union and the Anti-Saloon League believed alcohol consumption was responsible for the social problems such as domestic violence, crime and poverty which caused them to contribute to the implementation of prohibition laws.² Through a legal ban of the manufacture or sale of alcohol, many believed “prohibition would re-create a socially ordered community through the establishment of Protestant middle/class values.”³ Prohibition directly impacted the immigrant communities such as the Irish, Italians, and Germans as drinking was deeply ingrained in their culture and traditions. Native born Americans expected immigrants would “conform to the dominant English Protestant culture,” and prohibition attempted to legally enforce this conformity.⁴ Instead, the immigrant communities tended to oppose the prohibition which further exposed how the movement failed to unite the population through enforcement. Law enforcement often targeted immigrants as speakeasies and bootlegging operations were frequently associated with their neighborhoods. Prohibition’s restrictive laws fueled resentment and widened cultural divides, reinforcing nativist prejudices.⁵ Figures such as Al Capone and George Moran rose to prominence through these large smuggling and distribution operations which further established organized crime within immigrant communities.

While many viewed Prohibition as a progressive step towards social order and homogeneity, instead it marked the rise of powerful organized crime groups who profited off the illegal liquor trade. These gangs acquired immense wealth and political influence through bribery and coercion; “there were fortunes to be made from the illicit trade, and prohibition agents were not up against individual law breakers, but faced well-organized and well-mannered gangs.”⁶ Law enforcement and the government were easily persuaded and often turned a blind eye to organized crime activities potentially out of fear or financial pressure. These tactics led to the increase in violence and corruption in both the political and social spheres. These factors created the environment of the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre and allowed organized crime to thrive. 

 The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre was not just an isolated event, but part of a broader pattern of increasing gang violence present in the 1920s. The massacre exposed the violent basis of organized crime competition and the limits of law enforcement in an era of mass corruption. This Massacre emphasized the tensions between rival gangs while fueling public outrage. It effectively demonstrated how prohibition failed as the movement promoted lawlessness and corruption rather than temperance. Ultimately, the increase in organized crime and violence exposed the failures of Prohibition and contributed to its eventual repeal in 1933.

Citations

Footnotes

1. The Mob Museum in downtown Las vegas. Accessed April 2, 2025. https://themobmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/trio.jpg.  ︎
2. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, ed. Eric Foner (New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 1995), 229. ︎
3. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 228. ︎
4. Dumenil, The Modern Temper,204. ︎
5. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 230. ︎
6. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 233. ︎

Bibliography

“Divisions.” Labor & Capital, America in the 1920s, Primary Sources for Teachers, America in Class, National Humanities Center. Accessed April 2, 2025. https://americainclass.org/sources/becomingmodern/divisions/text6/text6.htm. 

McDonough, Daniel. “Chicago Press Treatment of the Gangster, 1924-1931.” Illinois Historical Journal 82, no. 1 (1989): 17–32. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40192250.

The Mob Museum in downtown Las vegas. Accessed April 2, 2025. https://themobmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/trio.jpg. 

Erin Pryor

Erin Pryor is a History and Philosophy double major in the Honors Program, graduating with the Class of 2025. She is a writing consultant on campus at the Center for Reading and Writing. She is the president of Phi Alpha Theta history honors society and a member of Phi Alpha Delta pre-law fraternity.

While an anti-immigrant strain ran through politics in the United States since the very founding of the republic, it was only after World War I and the Red Scare of 1919-1920 that nativists acquired enough clout to push through the quota acts of 1921 and 1924. An important element of the anti-immigrant crusade was the persistent association of immigrants with contagious disease, which served to increase anxiety about their bringing with them the unseen germs of deadly epidemics. Activists sent petitions to Congress calling for restrictions on immigration for public health reasons (Markel 1997, 85).  As Markel writes, “Not only does the infectious disease become the ‘enemy’ but, so, too do the human beings (and their contacts) who have encountered the microbe in question” (Markel, 185). With the “Spanish Flu” pandemic of 1918 (Barry 2018), as well as smaller outbreaks of typhus in 1892 and 1921 (“Typhus and Immigration” 1892 and “Aliens Infested on Ellis Island” 1921), polio in 1916 (Kraut 1995, 66), and cholera in 1892 (Markel 26-27) still fresh in the minds of the public, nativists pressed for reductions in immigrant numbers, especially of  Southern Italians and Eastern European Jews.

These newcomers seeking relief from poverty and persecution had arrived in larger numbers in the previous two decades, and immigration had begun to rise dramatically after the hiatus of World War I. The number of foreigners arriving in New York, for example, would double by the end of June 1921, from the previous fiscal year, increasing from 333,727 to 665,001 (Unrau, Historical Research Study II 1984, 626).

Exclusion of Immigrants with a “Loathsome or Dangerous Contagious Disease”

Against this backdrop, early in 1921 the House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization held an extraordinary hearing on the “Physical Examination of Immigrants” (Physical Examination of Immigrants 1921). Publisher, nativist and ardent eugenicist Albert Johnson (R-WA), who would go on to co-write the 1924 quota act, chaired the all-male committee. He invited Joseph Broadman, MD, who had written to him, to discuss his observations of the medical inspection of immigrants at Ellis Island. The Immigration Act of 1893 required the exclusion of immigrants having a “loathsome or dangerous contagious disease,” as well as the physically and mentally handicapped. The U.S. Public Health Service (USPS) physicians were tasked with inspecting immigrants and to identify and medically certify those with such conditions, and the Bureau of Immigration would then make the decision about exclusion in each case. At the port of New York, through which most migrants traveled, USPS doctors inspected steerage class passengers on Ellis Island. Those traveling first and second class were given a cursory inspection on ship and only those sick or with noticeable defects were sent to Ellis Island for follow-up (Moreno 2004, xiii).

The 1921 hearing focused on venereal disease. While the word “loathsome” was not used, of course, in medical diagnosis, certainly “loathsome” (not to mention “dangerous” and “contagious”) fit the bill when discussing venereal disease. Perhaps only leprosy elicits the same sort of public recoil as both are debilitating and disfiguring. Moreover, syphilis can end in insanity. Broadman, editor of “The Modern Health Advocate” magazine, testified about the “lack of precaution” being taken “to prevent the constant and ever-increasing influx of venereal disease into this country” (Physical Examination of Immigrants 3). Being at the intersection of anxiety about both immigration and the loosening of sexual mores at the time, Broadman’s statements at the hearing clearly struck a nerve.

Changes in Women’s Roles in the 1920s

Beginning earlier in the twentieth century and escalating in the 1920s, there were unsettling changes in women’s roles, especially as they became more independent working outside the home. Working-class women sought respite from tedious jobs demanding long hours and found it in unchaperoned visits to amusement parks, dance halls, and cinemas (Dumenil 1995, 131). Many of these women were daughters of immigrants, if not immigrants themselves. A general increase in awareness of women’s sexuality, coupled with the opportunity (including especially the use of the automobile) led to more sexual experimentation (Dumenil 131). Indeed, Broadman’s publishing company, the Physical Culture Corporation, sought to capitalize on these trends, publishing “Intimate Health Talks,” a magazine whose titillating title belied its discussions of proper sexual hygiene (“Intimate Health Talks” 1922, 131). That the hearing focused on venereal disease put it at the nexus of fear about the so-called dilution of white Anglo-Saxon vitality (Immigration and Other Interests of Prescott Farnsworth Hall 1922, 33)[1], unease about the economic and sexual agency of women, fear of deadly disease brought by immigrants, and revulsion of sexually transmitted infections. Indeed, having syphilis or gonorrhea was viewed more as a moral failing than it was a medical condition.

Broadman’s appearance at the hearing may have been a publicity stunt to promote his publications. He criticized the process on Ellis Island as too focused on excluding those with obvious diseases or mental disabilities and not enough on venereal disease. He declared that gonorrhea was “next to measles in frequency” and cited research that 50-60% of adult males in the United States were infected. Broadman stated that “Syphilis and gonorrhea are among the most wide­ spread of all infectious diseases. Their victims are numbered in many millions, not in hundreds. Not a man or woman lives who does not touch elbows with them daily; whose house has not seen their entry and departure and who may not at any time themselves become afflicted” (Physical Examination 6).

Is Venereal Disease More Prevalent Among Immigrants?

After claiming that venereal diseases could be contracted from toilet seats, or even from a glass of water handed to you by waiter in a restaurant (Physical Examination 6-8), there was this exchange between Broadman and Congressman Harold Knutson (R-MN), who was himself an immigrant from Scandinavia:

Broadman: “…it is found that the better educated people do not have venereal diseases to the same extent that the poorer classes have.”

Knutson: “Isn’t it found more prevalent among the Mediter­ranean people than among the people of northern Europe?”

Broadman: “Venereal diseases are more prevalent in those countries” (Physical Examination 10).

The testimony underscores the broad medical and public acceptance of the germ theory of the disease, with little understanding or consideration of the theory’s limitations.

The second person to testify at the hearing was Assistant Surgeon General R.H. Creel, who had served on Ellis Island and defended the inspection process of the USPHS. Creel stated that even eliminating every case of immigrant venereal disease, there would still be “two to three million” cases in the country (of a population of about 108 million in 1921). Creel asked if it was worth spending the money ($600,000 for an additional 200 doctors annually), when venereal diseases would not be eliminated, nor even marginally reduced (Physical Examination 15).

Creel cited several studies, including one by the New York City Draft Board, which found only a 2.4% rate of venereal disease among draftees and an Ellis Island study showing the rate among seamen as less than 3%. When Congressman John E. Raker (D-CA) asked Creel about the number of venereal disease cases detected at Ellis Island, Creel apparently provided instead the figures for all immigration to the United States: in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1920, there were 3,869 cases of venereal disease out of a total of 1,537,527 immigrants and seamen examined (.25%, or one-quarter of 1%). Some of these were discovered by ship doctors who reported them to immigration authorities in port. The actual figures for Ellis Island for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1920 were that of 333,727 aliens and 27,341 crew examined, the rates of venereal disease were .04% and 2.21% respectively (Annual Report of the Surgeon-General 1920, 186, 190).

Congressman Riley J. Wilson (D-LA) pressed Creel on what percent of cases would be discovered “if we had proper examination.”  Creel believed that “no more than” 1% of immigrants had venereal diseases (Physical Examination 14-16), an estimate he would later lower. Ironically, some of those with venereal diseases were permitted to undergo treatment in a hospital and allowed to enter if cured. The expense of treatment was, by law, paid for by the steamship lines, which were required to do their own inspections to weed out such cases before leaving the port of departure.

USPHS Estimates Venereal Disease Among Immigrants at One-Fifth of One Percent

Creel also referenced an investigation prompted by New York Commissioner William Williams in 1903-1904. For one week, physicians took unmarried male arrivals to a separate examination room and had them strip en masse. They found one case of swollen glands in the groin (a sign of venereal disease or a skin infection) and one case of gonorrhea. Moreover, of the 3,427 aliens sent to Ellis Island Hospital for observation or treatment that fiscal year, only two were found to have syphilis, hardly an epidemic (Annual Report of the Surgeon-General 1904, 194).

Midway through Creel’s testimony, Raker accused Creel of not supporting thorough examinations of all immigrants “because if the immigrants were not permitted to come ashore it would interfere with business and commercial interests.” Creel took great exception to Raker’s comment, as USPHS physicians prided themselves, as a uniformed, commissioned service (much like members of the military), on remaining apolitical and focused on the practice of medicine in a scientific fashion. Creel’s argument was simply that he believed it would not be worth the expense of increasing the number of doctors as well as the space at Ellis Island to thoroughly examine every immigrant, and that ship congestion in the port might result, which “would come right down of the head of the Surgeon General” (Physical Examination 17). Throughout the hearing, there was no discussion at all about how immigrants—most of whom had their initial impressions of American government at Ellis Island and would eventually become citizens–reacted to such invasive examination.

The day after the hearing, Creel wrote to the Committee to augment his testimony. He stated that in 1915, because of greatly reduced immigration owing to the war, “opportunity presented for intensive examination of a considerable number of arriving aliens.” One group of 11,794 immigrants “were striped of clothing and given a thorough examination in a private room.” Comparing this group to those undergoing a more cursory, standard traditional examination, the PHS found that there was “practically no difference” regarding the detection of “dangerous contagious diseases.” Of the 11,794 intensively examined, the data showed only 37, about three-tenths of one percent, had any dangerous contagious disease. Creel lowered his estimate of immigrant venereal disease from the one percent he stated at the hearing to one-fifth of one percent (Physical Examination 26).

1921 Quota Act Passes Just Five Months Later

It’s likely that Committee Chair Johnson had no intention to consider intensifying the medical examination at Ellis Island or any of the other ports of entry. That venereal disease among immigrants was hardly a raging contagion or, in fact, that the rate of infection was actually lower than the existing US population, did not matter. They would reduce the “import” of what tiny amount of venereal disease there was arriving by reducing immigration, and they would do so primarily by restricting it from Eastern and Southern Europe. The 1921 Quota Act, passed overwhelmingly just five months later, limited by nationality immigrants by country to 3% of the declared number of foreign-born living in the United States in the 1910 census, and the total number of immigrants to 355,000 per year (Unrau, Historical Research Study I 1984, 113).  The 1924 act would require the use of visas and passports and that immigrants first be processed at overseas consulates (Moreno xviii).

The 1921 act was reauthorized twice to keep it in place for the next two years, but it was deemed insufficient. In 1924, Congress would pass and Calvin Coolidge would sign the most far-reaching immigration restriction law in the nation’s history. The Johnson-Reed Act limited by nationality immigrants by country to 2% of the declared number of foreign-born living in the United States in the 1890 census, and the total number of immigrants to just 164,667 per year. Countries in northern and western Europe received 85.6% of the quotas, while just 12.4% were allotted to southern and eastern Europe. These restrictions would remain in place until 1965 (Moreno 116) and essentially changed the function of Ellis Island from an immigrant processing facility to a deportation center.

The attachment of contagious disease to immigrants did not dissipate with the dramatic reduction in newcomer numbers. As Markel and Stern write, “…the social perception of the threat of the infected immigrant was typically far greater than the actual danger. Indeed, the number of ‘diseased’ immigrants has always been infinitesimal when

compared with the number of newcomers admitted to this country” (Markel and Stern 2002, 758). In the early 1990s, Haitian immigrants were accused of bringing AIDS into the country and were required to undergo blood tests (Kraut 1994, 1-2). Policies of both the Trump and Biden administrations used COVID as a reason to restrict immigration not just from China, where COVID first surfaced, but at the US southern border as well.

In September 2023, presidential candidate Donald Trump declared claimed that illegal immigrants were  “poisoning the blood of our country,” a charge that effectively combines the argument of the “dilution” of the hearty American stock of 100 years prior with the fear that immigrants were bringing epidemics. “It’s so bad, and people are coming in with disease. People are coming in with… with every possible thing that you can have,” he said. In May 2024, as the Presidential election moved into full swing, Trump combined the dread of disease with anxiety of terrorism: “Many, many terrorists are coming in, and people are coming in with very contagious disease…. You know, like it’s all of a sudden you see there’s a run on tuberculosis. There’s a run on things that we haven’t talked about for years in this country” (Trayler, “Trump Says” 2024). It wouldn’t be until 2025 that Trump would appointment an anti-vaccine activist as secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and that the country would witness not an epidemic of venereal disease among immigrants but the outbreak of measles, whose victims are mostly the native-born living in insular communities (“Texas measles outbreak” 2025).

Bibliography

“Aliens Infested on Ellis Island.” 1921. The New York Times. February 19.

https://nyti.ms/4ibQWUE

Annual Report of the Surgeon-General of the Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service of the United States for the Fiscal Year 1904. 1904. Government Printing Office.

Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service of the United States for the Fiscal Year 1920. 1920. Government Printing Office.

Barry, John M. 2018. The Great Influenza: The Story of the Deadliest Pandemic in History. Penguin Books.

Dumenil, Lynn. 1995. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. Hill and Wang.

Immigration and Other Interests of Prescott Farnsworth Hall. 1922. Compiled by Mrs. Prescott F. Hall. The Knickerbocker Press.

https://ia601308.us.archive.org/21/items/cu31924064104254/cu31924064104254.pdf

“Intimate Health Talks.” [Advertisement.] 1922. Physical Culture. July.

Kraut, Alan M. 1994.  Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the “Immigrant Menace.”  Basic Books.

Kraut, Alan M. 1995.  “Plagues and Prejudice: Nativism’s Construction of Disease in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century New York City.” In Hives of Sickness: Public Health and Epidemics in New York City, edited by David Rossner. Rutgers University Press.

Markel, Howard. 1997. Quarantine! East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892. The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Markel H, Stern AM. 2002. The foreignness of germs: the persistent association of immigrants and disease in American society. Milbank Q 80(4): 757-88.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12532646

Moreno, Barry. 2004. Encyclopedia of Ellis Island. Greenwood Press.

Physical Examination of Immigrants: Hearings Before the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization. 1921. House of Representatives, Sixty-Sixth Congress, Third Session. Government Printing Office.

https://www.google.com/books/edition/Physical_Examination_of_Immigrants/dXWqbRfc_okC?hl=en

“Texas measles outbreak draws attention to traditionalist Mennonite community.”

Anabaptist World. March 14, 2025.

Traylor, Jake. (2024). “Trump says people crossing the border bring ‘very contagious disease’ with them.” May 22, 2024.  

https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/trump-says-migrants-bring-contagious-disease-border-rcna153631

Accessed March 7, 2025

“Typhus and Immigration.” 1892. New York Times. February 13.

https://nyti.ms/4biRcym

Unrau, Harlan D. 1984.  Historical Research Study (Historical Component): Ellis Island Statue of Liberty National Historic Monument New York – New Jersey Volume I. U. S. Department of the Interior/National Park Service.

https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/stli1/hrs1.pdf

Unrau, Harlan D. 1984. Historical Research Study (Historical Component): Ellis Island Statue of Liberty National Historic Monument New York – New Jersey Volume II. U. S. Department of the Interior/National Park Service.

https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/stli1/hrs2.pdf

Resources

Resources listed below were freely accessible at the links shown on March 19, 2025.

A transcript of the 1921 hearing is here:

Physical Examination of Immigrants: Hearings Before the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization. 1921. House of Representatives, Sixty-Sixth Congress, Third Session. Government Printing Office.

Markel H, Stern AM. 2002. The foreignness of germs: the persistent association of immigrants and disease in American society. Milbank Q. 80(4):757-88.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12532646

This article is a good overview of the perception of immigrants and disease.

Federal historian Harlan D. Unrau wrote this general, three-volume history of Ellis Island:

Unrau, Harlan D. 1984.  Historical Research Study (Historical Component): Ellis Island Statue of Liberty National Historic Monument New York – New Jersey Volume I. U. S. Department of the Interior/National Park Service.

https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/stli1/hrs1.pdf

Unrau, Harlan D. 1984. Historical Research Study (Historical Component): Ellis Island Statue of Liberty National Historic Monument New York – New Jersey Volume II. U. S. Department of the Interior/National Park Service.

https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/stli1/hrs2.pdf

Unrau, Harlan D. 1984. Historical Research Study (Historical Component): Ellis Island Statue of Liberty National Historic Monument New York – New Jersey Volume III. U. S. Department of the Interior/National Park Service.

https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/stli1/hrs3.pdf

[1] Hall, co-founder and secretary of the Immigration Restriction League, was enamored of English mathematician and eugenicist  Karl Pearson, and a statement attributed to him: “You cannot change the leopard’s spots, and you cannot change bad stock to good; you may dilute it, possibly spread it over a large area, spoiling good stock, but until it ceases to multiply it will not cease to be.”

Brian Scanlan

Brian Scanlan is a former publishing executive with an interests in the history of the immigration and medicine. He has a B.A. in history from Rutgers University.

On January 11, 1921, as the post-Great War alarm about increased immigration intensified, the Congressional Committee on Immigration and Naturalization held a hearing called the “Physical Examination of Immigrants.” Members of the all-male Committee invited Joseph Broadman, MD, to discuss his observations of the medical inspections of immigrants at Ellis Island. At the hearing, Broadman, editor of “The Modern Health Advocate” magazine, testified about the “lack of precaution” being taken “to prevent the constant and ever-increasing influx of venereal disease into this country” (“Physical Examination of Immigrants” 1921, 3). Being at the intersection of anxiety about both immigration and the loosening of sexual mores, Broadman’s statements at the hearing clearly struck a nerve.

Beginning earlier in the twentieth century and escalating in the 1920s, there were unsettling changes in women’s roles, especially as they became more independent working outside the home. Working-class women sought respite from tedious jobs demanding long hours and found it in unchaperoned visits to amusement parks, dance halls, and cinemas (Dumenil 1995, 131). Many of these women were daughters of immigrants, if not immigrants themselves. A general increase in awareness of women’s sexuality, coupled with the opportunity (including especially the use of the automobile) led to more sexual experimentation. Indeed, Broadman’s publishing company, the Physical Culture Corporation, sought to capitalize on these trends, publishing “Intimate Health Talks,” a magazine whose titillating title belied its discussions of proper sexual hygiene (“Intimate Health Talks” 1922, 131).

Broadman’s appearance at the hearing may have been a publicity stunt. He criticized the process on Ellis Island as too focused on excluding those with obvious diseases or mental disabilities and not enough on venereal disease. He declared that gonorrhea was “next to measles in frequency” and cited research that 50-60% of adult males in the United States were infected. After claiming that venereal diseases could be contracted from toilet seats, or even from a glass of water handed to you by waiter in a restaurant (“Physical Examination” 6-8), there was this exchange between Broadman and Congressman Harold Knutson (R-MN), who was himself an immigrant from Scandinavia:

Broadman: “…it is found that the better educated people do not have venereal diseases to the same extent that the poorer classes have.”
Knutson: “Isn’t it found more prevalent among the Mediterranean people than among the people of northern Europe?”
Broadman: “Venereal diseases are more prevalent in those countries” (“Physical Examination” 10).

The second person to testify at the hearing was Assistant Surgeon General R.H. Creel, who had served on Ellis Island and defended the inspection process of the Public Health Service. He cited several studies, including one by the New York City Draft Board, which found only a 2.4% rate of venereal disease among draftees and an Ellis Island study showing the rate among seamen as less than 3%. Creel believed that fewer than 1% of immigrants had venereal diseases (“Physical Examination” 14-16).

Creel’s testimony fell on deaf ears. Committee Chair Albert Johnson (R-WA), an anti-immigrant activist, eugenicist and publisher, would push through the first quota act four months later, and it would severely limit immigration from Eastern and Southern Europe. The hearing served to whip up unfounded concern in Congress about venereal disease and immigrants, attaching to them both infectious illness and blame for the relaxation of Victorian sexual attitudes.

Bibliography
Dumenil, Lynn. 1995. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. Hill and Wang.

“Intimate Health Talks.” [Advertisement.] 1922. Physical Culture. July.

Physical Examination of Immigrants: Hearings Before the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization. 1921. House of Representatives, Sixty-Sixth Congress, Third Session. Government Printing Office.

Brian Scanlan

Brian Scanlan is a former publishing executive with an interests in the history of the immigration and medicine. He has a B.A. in history from Rutgers University.

When I think about the 1920s, the immediate picture I believe many, including myself, imagine is that of flappers, speakeasies, music, and dances such as “The Charleston.” The 1920s is sometimes referred to as the “Roaring Twenties.”. It was the decade after World War 1 and possesses the reputation of being a time of prosperity, economic growth, consumerism, and the boom of the stock market. However, I know this is mostly a stereotypical image of the 1920s instead of a fully accurate interpretation. 

I view the image of the flapper as a prominent symbol of the 1920s. This decade brought new attention to the rights of women. Women had recently gained the right to vote, granted by the 19th Amendment. It was passed by Congress in 1919. It was ratified in 1920. I recall learning that the new fashion trends of the decade demonstrated the movement of women straying away from the norm and dressing more freely. They rejected the restrictive clothing that was deemed appropriate for women decades prior. Flappers wore shorter dresses that were sleeveless and had a more straight style. For their hair, the bobbed cut increased in popularity. This was a way for young women to rebel and demonstrate their new expression of femininity and independence. The 1920s was also the era of prohibition in the United States. Prohibition, through the 18th Amendment, banned the production, distribution, and sale of alcoholic beverages. It was officially put into effect in 1920. The illegalization of alcohol evokes the image of the illegal activities surrounding alcohol, referred to as bootlegging. It also evokes the image of organized crime within the 1920s. At the end of the 1920s, it is relatively common knowledge that the stock market crashed. This led to The Great Depression, ending a time of prosperity. 

In addition to the image and stereotype the 1920s evokes within America and American society, I am aware of the history of political tensions outside the country, including Europe and Asia. Last semester, I took a course on socialism and communism. This course explored the influence communism had in European and American politics throughout the late 19th century and the 20th century. These political movements and tensions had made their way into the decade of the 1920s. An event that occurred in the United States regarding the increasing fear of communism was the trial of Sacco and Vanzetti. Sacco and Vanzetti were Italian immigrants in the United States who were accused of murder and robbery. They were viewed as political radicals and anarchists. The fear of political ideologies considered radical, such as communism and socialism, coupled with anti-immigrant sentiments, led to the conviction and execution of these two men. I am also aware of the events that took place within Russia in 1922. The Russian Civil War had ended, and Russia transitioned into a socialist state. The Soviet Union was officially established, inspiring political movements in other regions.

My Impression on Images from the 1920s

While searching images of the 1920s, I came across these two pictures:

1. Louis Armstrong House and Archives. “Louis Armstrong with His Hot Five.” The Roaring 20s. Accessed January 28, 2025. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/crash-roaring-20s/.

This image is of Louis Armstrong and his “Hot Five” band. Louis Armstrong is a famous Jazz musician who started his first jazz recording band in the 1920s. After looking at this image, it confirms the image of the 1920s as a time of music and dance. I know that jazz music was one of the most popular genres of the decade. The 1920s is also considered to be “The Jazz Age”.

2. “Josephine Baker Performing the Charleston at the Folies Bergère, Paris.” Roaring Twenties. Accessed January 28, 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roaring_Twenties.

This image is of Josephine Baker, an African-American-born dancer and actress. She performed in Paris and danced “The Charleston.” She gained popularity mostly in Europe. This image confirms my initial image of the 1920s as a time of dance and performance. It also demonstrates a flapper-like appearance.

While these two images of Louis Armstrong and Josephine Baker confirm a popular image of the 1920s, It also leads me to think about a darker side of the 1920s. African Americans were still experiencing racial discrimination, segregation, and violence. Despite this, it seems African Americans played an important role in the culture of the 1920s through the expression of art and music.

Bibliography

Louis Armstrong House and Archives. “Louis Armstrong with His Hot Five.” The Roaring 20s. Accessed January 28, 2025. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/crash-roaring-20s/.

“Josephine Baker Performing the Charleston at the Folies Bergère, Paris.” Roaring Twenties. Accessed January 28, 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roaring_Twenties.

grlynn

Grlynn is a Ramapo College senior majoring in history

The 1920s aimed to bring American society to the modern world amidst the political corruption, victimization of industrialization, and growth of the Socialist Party.¹ During this time, many social justice and humanitarian laws were produced, such as milk codes, child labor laws, public health laws, and workers’ compensation.² Amidst this was another very overlooked action: the changing of the death penalty.

The first state execution using lethal gas was at Nevada State Prison in Carson City, Nevada, where Gee Jon, a twenty-nine-year-old Chinese immigrant, was the first human to be given this penalty. The switch occurred because lethal gas was considered more humane than the usual execution style of a firing squad, hanging, and electrocution. If done correctly, people would inhale the gas and, within seconds, become unconscious and choke to death. However, it was almost always done incorrectly, and those would suffer for up to twenty minutes in excruciating pain.³

First, officials initially attempted to pump the gas directly into Gee Jon’s cell while he was asleep. However, it was unsuccessful, as the gas leaked out of his cell. In response, a makeshift gas chamber was set up outside of the prison, in the old butcher shop. The gas chamber was eleven feet long, ten feet wide, and eight feet high and killed at least one cat to test the effectiveness of the gas. When Gee Jon was put inside at 10:00 a.m., after eating a last meal of ham, eggs, toast, and coffee, the electric heater failed. The chamber should have been at 75 °F, the ideal temperature, but was instead at 52 °F due to the broken heater. This caused acid to form a toxic puddle on the ground.^{4 5}

One testimony states that after about five seconds, Gee Jon seemed to lose consciousness, and his head nodded up and down for six minutes. After about ten minutes, he was completely immobile.⁶ However, other sources claim he was in more apparent pain and was being berated by the prison officials. It cannot be precisely known what occurred as it was a closed event, and there are few records. The records that are there contradict each other.

Not everyone was in favor for this execution. Four guards who did not want to participate immediately resigned. Many others, some important officials, sent letters to Nevada State Prison pleading to halt the execution and change his sentence. They thought it was cruel and unusual punishment, and that Gee Jon did not deserve to die.

“From my observations of Gee Jon… I am of the opinion that he is in a mental collapse and in a state of mental irresponsibility amounting to insanity… I hope at this time that you… can see your way clear to commute the sentence of Gee Jon to life imprisonment.”

Nevada State Prison. Record Blank. 15.

During the execution, witnesses claim they thought they smelled almond blossoms, which is believed to be the odor of cyanide, leaking from the chamber. That caused Warden Dickerson, who was present at the time of the execution, to clear the area. After Gee Jon’s death, they opened a vent and put on a fan in the gas chamber to clear the air, and waited to open the door until the puddle on the floor evaporated. At 12:20 p.m., Gee Jons’ body was removed and taken to the prison hospital. Seven doctors pronounced him officially dead, but Warden Dickerson said an autopsy was not allowed because they were worried his body would release the toxic gas.⁷

Official records claim that there is no correlation between using an immigrant for the first gas execution. However, one can infer that it symbolizes progressiveness or shows the deep-rooted racism towards immigrants. First, there is symbolism in using an Asian immigrant for the most modern and humane execution style. It shows a step towards a more accepting country, especially since other countries used “outdated” options. For example, the United Kingdom and Japan primarily used hanging, and the Soviet Union and France used the guillotine. Nevertheless, it can also be viewed in a negative light.

It is no secret that Americans and the government disliked immigrants. The National Origins Act, passed in 1924, heavily excluded the amount of Asian immigrants in the United States.⁸ This act highlights the anti-Asian sentiment during the mid-nineteenth century, specifically on the West Coast and among the Chinese.⁹ Chinese immigrants were particularly discriminated against, which is reflected in a law passed in 1882 that stated the Chinese were a “vilified…debased, corrupting race.”¹⁰ Immigrants as a whole were seen as challenging to American culture and society.¹¹ Americans linked immigrants to the crisis of the cities, making immigration seem like a multifaceted threat to American society.¹²

“CHINESE KILLER MUST DIE TODAY.” Nevada State Journal. February 8, 2024.

People

Hughie Sing was a newly recruited Hip Sing Tong gang member and Gee Jon’s apprentice of two months. Sing found and pointed to Tom Quong Kee as the target for the murder. Sing was nineteen at the age of the shooting and got life imprisonment instead of the death penalty. Sing was born in the United States, which helped his case, unlike Gee Jon who was described as an “illiterate Chinese unacquainted with American customs.” Sing was bilingual, unlike Gee Jon, and was told to cooperate more with the authorities. He was released on parole in 1938.^{13 14} The treatment of Sing versus Gee Jon shows a vast difference. Since Sing was more “American,” he was sentenced to a lesser degree.

Tom Quong Kee was an elderly member of the rival gang, the Bing Kung Tong, in Mina, Nevada. Gee Jon murdered him with a .38 caliber revolver with two shots to the heart.¹⁵

James M. Frame was Hughie Sing’s attorney and Fiore Raffetto was Gee Jon’s attorney. Sing and Gee Jon both pled not guilty. Frame argued that Gee Jon’s punishment was a cruel and unusual punishment, but the appeal was denied. Raffetto filed a writ of certiorari but was unsuccessful. Frame and Raffetto tried to keep the execution from happening up until the deed was done.^{16 17}

Denver S. Dickerson was the warden at the time of Gee Jon’s death and oversaw the execution. Warden Dickerson thought the use of lethal gas was impractical and that the best method of execution was the firing squad.¹⁸

Events and Timeline

America in the 1880s had a very negative view of Chinese immigrants, which marked the height of anti-Chinese sentiment. Like most immigrants, Chinese immigrants were more likely to work in cheap labor jobs. This “took away” job security for Americans, and were perceived as a threat. They were also discriminated against due to their cultural and religious differences.

The death penalty in America in the 1880s was much different than it is now. Hanging was the primary execution style; each state had its own laws regarding the death penalty and execution. Public executions were still common, and people started to advocate more for ending it.

• May 6, 1882: The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed.²¹

From 1900 to 1919, America still had a negative view of Chinese immigrants. Their racial stereotypes were strong in popular culture, which highlighted anti-Chinese sentiment.

The death penalty in American in the 1900-1919 had a shift in thinking. The electric chair was starting to replace hanging as it was considered more humane, execution rates had times of increased and decreased, and there was a stricter checklist to qualify for the death penalty.

• 1913: Nevada invents an “automated firing squad.” This is an execution method where three rifles are mounted on an iron frame, and all fire simultaneously. It is used one time in the execution of Andriza Mircovich.²²

In the 1920s, America regarding the death penalty showed a time of change. They now introduced lethal gas, but it was still not widespread. Execution rates decreased, and instead of the death penalty, there was greater advocacy for rehabilitation, reformative justice, and the right to live.

• March 17, 1921: Assembly Bill No. 104 was passed, which authorized the use of lethal gas in Nevada.
• August 28, 1921: Gee Jon murders Tom Quong Kee.
• February 8, 1924: Twenty-nine-year-old Gee Jon dies by lethal gas in Carson City, Nevada.
• May 26, 1924: The National Origins Act passed, which heavily limited the number of Asian immigrants into the United States.

From the 1940s to the 2000s, America experienced major changes regarding Chinese immigrants. During World War II, America and China were allies against Japan, leading to a better portrayal of Chinese people and immigrants in America. An increase in Chinese immigrants in America in 1965 made them more visible, and there was significant political and social reform advocating for their rights.

From the 1940s to the 2000s America, the death penalty had a significant change. Hanging and electric chair were the most common, yet towards the 2000s, lethal injection was the most favored, the legal procedures and reasons why a person is given the death penalty is stricter than ever, there was an increase in abolishing the death penalty, and the execution rates still fluctuated.

• December 17, 1943: The Chinese Exclusion Act is repealed.
• 1955: Eleven U.S. states adopted lethal gas as their primary method of execution.²³
• May 4, 1990: Donald Harding, also known as Jesse Tafero, was executed by lethal gas in Florida. He was convicted of murder in 1976.
• 1996: A federal appeals court says that California’s statute authorizing lethal gas violated the U.S. Constitution’s Eighth Amendment prohibition against cruel and unusual punishments. The primary execution style was replaced by lethal injection.²⁴
• The early 2000s: In California and Missouri, there is a right to choose between lethal gas or injection.

In America in the 2020s, anti-Chinese sentiment grew due to the COVID-19 pandemic. While things are better than they were a hundred years ago, Chinese immigrants and Chinese-Americans are still treated unjustly and unfairly.

In America in the 2020s, a hundred years later after the first lethal gas execution, lethal injection is the primary style as it is the most painless, and more and more people want to end the death penalty.

• January 25, 2024: Kenneth Smith is given the lethal gas execution in Alabama. It is likely to constitute torture, which violates international human rights treaties ratified by the U.S.

Significance

While browsing lesser-known events of the 1920s, this immediately piqued my interest. I had never given the death penalty’s history much thought, so it stood out to me. As I started researching more and more, I realized there was more to this topic than it seemed. The death penalty has been around since humans began walking and has since been a widely debated topic for centuries, with the controversy still ongoing. It is just a prevalent topic now, as it was a hundred years ago when Gee Jon was executed. It also ties into Chinese immigration, which also spans human history. Studying the historiography of the death penalty, not just in the United States, is very interesting, just as the history of immigration. As I was researching, it was fascinating to see the change in the death penalty and Chinese immigration within the United States and compare to how it is now. Presently, the death penalty is still a highly controversial topic that causes quite a stir, which shows the increasing fight for human rights. Chinese immigration and the way Americans view the Chinese and Chinese Americans is a shaky relationship, too. Due to racism and xenophobia, Chinese immigrants and citizens are still heavily discriminated against in the United States. A prime example is the COVID-19 pandemic when anti-Chinese sentiment peaked in the early 2020s. This topic both shows the history of the death penalty and Chinese immigration, where in the present-day conversation, it is vital to stay knowledgeable in the history of it and how it is viewed in the American past.

While lethal gas execution may still whisper within the United States, this torturous method remains largely unused. Nevada State Prison, the infamous starter to the deadly gas execution, executed thirty-two men with this method from 1924-1979. Since then, it has stopped, yet the state’s execution chamber that killed Gee Jon a hundred years ago still remains.²⁵

More Resources

Newspapers.com

“Past to Present: 100 Years Since the United States’ First Lethal Gas Execution, a Recently Renowed Practice.” Death Penalty Information Center. https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/news/past-to-present-100-years-since-the-united-states-first-lethal-gas-execution-a-recently-renewed-practice.

Bibliography

Bye, Raymond T. “Recent History and Present Status of Capital Punishment in the United States.” Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 17, no. 2 (1926): 234–45. https://doi.org/10.2307/1134506.

Chan, Loren (1975). “Example for the Nation: Nevada’s Execution of Gee Jon”. Nevada Historical Society Quarterly.

“Chinese Killer Must Die Today.” Nevada State Journal. February 8, 2024. https://www.newspapers.com/article/nevada-state-journal/144232683/.

“Death Penalty Information Center.” Death Penalty Information Center, December 1, 2023. https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/.

Denno, Deborah W.. “gas chamber”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Oct. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/gas-chamber.

Gerber, Rudolph Joseph; Johnson, John M. (2007). The Top Ten Death Penalty Myths: The Politics of Crime Control. Greenwood Publishing Group.

“History of the Death Penalty.” Death Penalty Information Center. https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/state-and-federal-info/state-by-state/nevada.

Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper (Hill and Wang).

Nevada State Prison. Record Blank.

Reid, John Bevis; James, Ronald Michael (2004). Uncovering Nevada’s Past: A Primary Source History of the Silver State. The University of Nevada Press.

“Waiting on Nevada’s Death Row… 55 years ago.” Nevada State Journal. September 23, 1979. https://www.newspapers.com/article/nevada-state-journal/144232683/.

Wikipedia contributors, “Gee Jon,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gee_Jon&oldid=1213442489.

Featured Image: Nevada State Prison. Gee Jon Mug Shot. Photograph.

Citations

1. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper (Hill and Wang). 17. ︎
2. Modern Temper. 18. ︎
3. Reid, John Bevis; James, Ronald Michael (2004). Uncovering Nevada’s Past: A Primary Source History of the Silver State. University of Nevada Press. ︎
4. Chan, Loren (1976). Example for the Nation: Nevada’s Execution of Gee Jon. Chinese Historical Society of America. ︎
5. “Descriptions of Execution Methods: Gas Chamber”. Death Penalty Information Center. 2010. ︎
6. Reid. ︎
7. Christianson, Scott (2010). Fatal Airs: The Deadly History and Apocalyptic Future of Lethal Gases That Threaten Our World. ABC-CLIO. pp. 49–51. ︎
8. Dumenil. 207. ︎
9. Dumenil. 208. ︎
10. Dumenil. 208. ︎
11. Dumenil. 204. ︎
12. Dumenil. 205. ︎
13. Reid, 108. ︎
14. Chan, 90-106 ︎
15. Wikipedia contributors, “Gee Jon,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gee_Jon&oldid=1213442489. ︎
16. Chan, 90–106. ︎
17. Gerber, Rudolph Joseph; Johnson, John M. (2007). The Top Ten Death Penalty Myths: The Politics of Crime Control. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 9–10. ︎
18. Reid, 108. ︎
19. “Waiting on Nevada’s Death Row… 55 years ago.” Nevada State Journal. September 23, 1979. https://www.newspapers.com/article/nevada-state-journal/144232683/. ︎
20. Nevada State Prison. Record Blank. ︎
21. Dumenil. 207. ︎
22. “Death Penalty Information Center.” Death Penalty Information Center, December 1, 2023. https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/. ︎
23. Denno, D. W.. “gas chamber.” Encyclopedia Britannica, October 20, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/topic/gas-chamber. ︎
24. Denno,”gas chamber.” ︎
25. “History of the Death Penalty.” Death Penalty Information Center. https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/state-and-federal-info/state-by-state/nevada. ︎

Isabella Apgar

History major and Human Rights and Genocide Studies minor at Ramapo College of New Jersey class of 2025.

The Emergency Quota Act was part of a long winded effort by Congress to limit immigration into the United States during the early 1920s. This effort began in 1917 with a law requiring Immigrants pass a literacy exam (in a language of their choice) to enter and remain in the country. The President at the time, Woodrow Wilson, vetoed this legislation but Congress overrode him.

During WWI, long established empires, like the Austria-Hungary Empire and Ottoman Empire, were dismantled. Additionally, the Russian Revolution at the start of the war, along with the Armenian Genocide, added to the inescapable chaos taking over Europe at the time. Citizens of those places that had descended into “anarchy, bolshevism, and syndicalism” (in the words of Congressmen Paul B. Johnson of Mississippi) wished to immigrate to the United States. Many members of Congress, along with much of the public, worried that those systems of rule could be brought to the United States with Immigrants. Congress and the public also worried about how an influx of Immigrants would affect the workforce, the economy, and the overall culture of the United States. So in the aftermath of WWI and the start of the 1920s, Congress realized they would need stronger immigration legislation if they were to achieve their semi-isolationist goals. The Immigration Committee headed by Republican representative, Albert Johnson of Washington State, pitched a bill that would permit a number equal to 3% of the current US residents from any foreign country (recorded during a fiscal year) entrance the United States. It should be noted that this legislation did not include Asian countries listed in the Immigration Act of 1917.

Unlike those who came before him, President Warren G. Harding cooperated with Congress and hence, the Emergency Quota Act came to be. The “emergency” act was proposed by the Immigration Committee as a temporary measure that would actually limit immigration into the country. However, it’s now known that the act remained permanent as it was built upon and solidified in 1924.

Albert Johnson, Representative of Washington State

Albert Johnson was elected into the House of Representatives in 1912 for the Sixty-third Congress. Prior to his time as a state representative he worked as a journalist for many different newspapers. This line of work would have made him very familiar with public opinions of his time, making him a good candidate to represent them in Congress. According to his biography on the archival website for the House of Representatives, he served as a “captain in the Chemical Warfare Service” during WWI. Although, his most notable work was done as chairman of the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization. He served in this role from the Sixty-sixth Congress to the Seventy-first. During this fever of worry and craving for isolationism that ran rampant among Congress and the public, Johnson was able to avoid the tunnel vision on the matter that afflicted his fellow congressmen. 

“His tactics and comments show that he was aware of the contradictions and divisions surrounding the immigration debate. He was, unlike many restrictionists of the time, possessed of the will, vision and subtlety to attempt to marshal and sustain continued opposition to unrestricted immigration.”

Allerfeldt, Kristofer. “‘And We Got Here First’: Albert Johnson, National Origins and Self-Interest in the Immigration Debate of the 1920s.” Journal of Contemporary History 45, no. 1 (2010): 7–26. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40542903.

At the time, Johnson’s ability to see the whole issue and not just one side made him the ideal candidate for the attempt and achievement of a resolution to the “immigration issue”. The proposal and passing of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 was considered a step in the right direction, but the success was short lived. As someone who was aware of both sides, he knew that a complete halt to all immigration would be impossible to achieve in actuality. Which is why the Quota Act greatly reduced the number of Immigrants allowed into the United States, and did not completely halt all entry. He expressed in a press briefing that he aimed to limit immigration to “the close blood relatives of naturalized citizens.” His opponents in the Senate felt that even this exception would allow too many “undesirables” into the United States. Over the course of the next few years, Johnson would make many attempts to give each side what they wanted. It seems his efforts reached a “happy” conclusion for Congress with the Johnson-Reed Act of 1924. 

Bumps in the Road

While there was discourse following the passing of the Emergency Quota Act, Congress was mostly satisfied with their bill. The trouble came after the passing of the bill, when certain aspects still needed to be worked out. One of the first issues with the terms of the legislation was the matter of the month of June, 1921. According to the Congressional Record from June 20, 1921 there was an issue with ships that departed between the passing of the bill on May 19, 1921 to June 8, 1921 that were in the the process of transporting people to the United States. The issue was whether or not to count these people toward the newly established quotas for their countries of origin, in addition to whether or not they should be allowed entry into the country.

The image above describes House joint resolution 153 of the Sixty-seventh Congress of the United States. It was proposed by none other than aforementioned Representative Albert Johnson. Johnson’s resolution was very simple, and realistic: those the ships that sailed between the passing of the act on May 19th and June 8th and the ships that were already in the process of sailing to the United States should be admitted as part of a grace period. Johnson argued that the fifteen day grace period to “clear the seas” was not enough, as ships can sail slower than expected or communications about the legislation could not have reached departing ships in time. This seems like a reasonable conclusion considering the fact that these would be the last large arrival of immigrants for the foreseeable future due to the Quota Act. However, that was not the case. Despite Albert Johnson’s reasonable argument for admittance, his opponents felt differently. Specifically, Representative Paul B. Johnson of Mississippi. 

Representative Paul B. Johnson made the argument that proper communications had been made to foreign countries and ship companies following the enactment of the Emergency Quota Act on May 19, 1921. He expressed that the resolution was for the ship owners more than the people on them. In summary, if the United States was to reject the incoming Immigrants, the ship owners would be obligated to transport them all back to the port of origin free of charge. He claims that the ship owners and the governments of the original port countries were informed of the new legislature but decided to send the people anyway. 

“During the hearings before the Immigration Committee it was developed that the owners of the ships carried the immigrants who now seek entrance into the United States in excess of the quota allowed under the immigration bill, and the immigrants on the said ships were informed of the passage of the law and knew of the conditions that prevailed in this country regarding immigration.”

Congress.gov. “Congressional Record.” March 1, 2023. https://www.congress.gov/bound-congressional-record/1921/06/20/61/house-section/article/2760-2790.

After much debate on the matter, from the ethics and morals to the legitimacy of the legislature they passed, the resolution passed with 189 “Yeas” and 71 “Nays”. Interestingly though, 169 members of the House of Representative did not vote on this resolution. 

Public Perception

It’s easy to gather based on the remarks of the representatives in Congress that there was a decent majority of citizens who were pleased with the passing of the Emergency Quota Act. However, there were also those who harbored criticisms of the bill. These criticisms and other reactions to the bill can be seen in the following political cartoons.

The original paper this cartoon was published in and its author are unknown, but the message is clear to see. However, whether this is a criticism or observation is unclear. Although, it feels like a criticism due to the way the bill is being depicted with Uncle Sam making all the European Immigrants go through a funnel to enter the country. All in all, the political cartoons of the time give much insight to the way the Emergency Quota Act was perceived by the public. 

Significance

The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 marked the beginning of the end for major waves of Eastern and Southern European immigration to the United States. It also seems to be the origin for many of the arguments used today against South American and Mexican immigrants. The close look done at the legislation one hundred years later illuminates how the ideals and notions Americans have surrounding immigration have not changed, but shifted from group to group. However, this event is truly a reflection of its time. After WWI the world was adjusting to the many upheavals that were arising all over Europe. Since its founding the American government had always strived to achieve some form of isolationism to protect its democratic-republic system, as George Washington had recommended. So, when long standing Empires, revolutions,genocide, and World War began their reaction was to protect themselves, and America, first. Which resulted in a decade of a healthy economy and much growth throughout other areas of American living. Which is why the budding stifling of immigration in the 1920s, while unfortunate, does not complicate the way the 1920s are remembered today.

Bibliography

Allerfeldt, Kristofer. “‘And We Got Here First’: Albert Johnson, National Origins and Self-Interest in the Immigration Debate of the 1920s.” Journal of Contemporary History 45, no. 1 (2010): 7–26. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40542903.

Bureau, US Census. “Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1922.” Census.gov, December 16, 2021. https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1923/compendia/statab/45ed.html.

“Closing the Door on Immigration (U.S. National Park Service).” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, July 18, 2017. https://www.nps.gov/articles/closing-the-door-on-immigration.htm. 

Congress.gov. “Congressional Record.” March 1, 2023. https://www.congress.gov/bound-congressional-record/1921/06/20/61/house-section/article/2760-2790.

History, Art & Archives, U.S. House of Representatives, “JOHNSON, Albert,” https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/J/JOHNSON,-Albert-(J000114)/ (March 01, 2023)

McSeveney, Sam. “Immigrants, the Literacy Test, and Quotas: Selected American History College Textbooks’ Coverage of the Congressional Restriction of European Immigration, 1917-1929.” The History Teacher 21, no. 1 (1987): 41–51. https://doi.org/10.2307/492801.

Higham, J. Strangers in the Land. Cambridge, MASS: Athenseum Press, 1963.

Michelle Steidle

Michelle Steidle is a History Major at Ramapo College, graduating with the Class of 2023. She enjoys historical research, long walks on the beach, and a good joke.