Planning the Strike

The 1927-1928 Colorado Coal Strike marked an intense period in the state’s labor history. In August of 1927, leaders of the International Workers of the World prepared and submitted a strike petition to the Colorado Industrial Commission (CIC). Officially unveiled at a September 4th meeting, it largely focused on demands for better pay and working conditions. It also laid out the plan for a strike that would begin on October 8th. The petition deliberately omitted anything that referred to the International Workers of the World, also called the IWW or Wobblies, because they were not a legally recognized union in Colorado. Instead, they called themselves the All State Conference of Colorado Coal Miners. However, the CIC realized that they were a front for the IWW and rejected their petition on the grounds that it was submitted by an unrecognized union. This meant that regardless of how closely the Wobblies followed the CIC rules, their petition to strike would always be rejected.¹

Deeming any and all IWW strikes illegal backfired on the CIC; it encouraged previously hesitant workers to participate in the Wobbly strike, and the date was pushed back from October 8th to October 18th in order to properly organize the northern and southern coal fields of Colorado.²

On October 17th, coalminers gathered in Lafayette, Colorado to vote on the strike. So many workers were present that they had to move from a local meeting hall to a baseball field. The workers unanimously voted to strike. Afterwards, a few men from each mine were called to a closed door meeting to begin planning the protests.³ Miners began to walk off the job the very next day, officially beginning the 1927-1928 Coal Strike on October 18th.⁴

Government Response

On October 19th, Thomas Annear, the state industrial commissioner and representative of the CIC, stated that the strike was illegal on the grounds that the picketers had not provided 30 days notice. The petition that they had submitted as the All State Conference of Colorado Coal Miners remained, in his eyes, illegal.⁵

On October 26th, Governor William H. Adams issued his first official statement on the strike:

The government’s immediately hostile response to the strike was just the beginning; tensions would only increase for the duration of the strike, and they would eventually lead to bloodshed in Colorado.

Columbine Mine Keeps Running

Columbine Mine was run by the Rocky Mountain Fuel Company, or RMFC. It was the newest and largest mine run by the company and was surrounded by the company town of Serene. It was also the only large coalmine that remained in operation after the strike began. Picketers were very active at Columbine Mine because it was so close to many other towns, including Lafayette and Erie. It allowed protesters to walk or drive to Columbine while scabs were preparing for work and try to dissuade them from working or convince them to join them in the strike.⁷

Columbine, like other northern Colorado coalmines, operated seasonally. The kind of coal that was rich there could not be stored well, but if it was left out too long it would not burn but could, potentially, spontaneously combust. Normally, coal miners only worked from October to March. The strike coincided with the opportune mining season as well as the time when people needed coal most; they needed it to heat their homes and businesses and provide them with electricity.⁸ The timing of the strike placed more pressure on coal companies, including the RMFC and its lone operating mine at Columbine.

Columbine Mine Workers Negotiate

On October 27th, the workers that had been manning Columbine Mine throughout the strike filed a petition with the CIC to raise their pay and impose better working conditions. The CIC considered this document legal, unlike the petition sent in to get permission for the state-wide strike. This was because the petition was filed separately from the strike by miners that worked while others were protesting. Crucially, the petition, and the miners that filed it, had no affiliation with the unrecognized IWW.⁹

This legal recognition scared mine owners, who believed a CIC decision favoring the miners could encourage strikers to keep pushing for wage increases. Simultaneously, owners feared that a decision against the petition could lead to yet more workers walking off of the job.¹⁰ M. D. Vincent, the Vice-President of the RMFC, penned a response to the petition. He acknowledged that the workers had “causes for just complaint” and stated that the company would be willing to increase wages, however he also claimed that the company was not turning a large profit. He said that if miners considered the difficulties the company faced, it would “consider their complaints, and it will be possible, not all at once, but gradually, to improve the conditions of both miners and operators.”¹¹

Two days after receiving the petition, the CIC announced that the basic wage at the Columbine Mine would be increased from $6.27 to $6.77 per 8 hour day. The decision was to be applicable at all six of the mines owned by RMFC, and many officials hoped it would spark the end of the strike in the northern Colorado coal fields.¹² Many Columbine miners were disappointed with the CIC decision, as they had hoped to earn at least $7.25 per day.¹³ Nonetheless, representatives of the Columbine Mine workers accepted the fifty-cent wage increase on October 30th, and by November 2nd more workers began returning to the job. However, this limited win was not enough to quell the strike in the rest of the state. The IWW encouraged protesters to hold out for the higher wage that they wanted, and the demonstrations continued throughout Colorado.¹⁴

The Strike Continues

During the first two weeks of the strike, meetings, rallies, and parades continued to grow stronger and more impactful throughout Colorado. Many picketers were able to convince scabs to join the strike, impacting coal mine production. On November 4th, as they grew more desperate, Colorado Fuel & Iron, or CF&I, told strikers that they would do anything to protect their property. Up to that point, the company had publicly claimed that production had actually increased during the strike, but the day before they had to lay off half of their steel workers because there was insufficient coal to run the plant. In response to this development, Governor Adams decided to intervene.¹⁵

The Colorado State Strike Police

On November 4th, the same day CF&I laid out their willingness to protect their coal mines, Governor Adams revived the controversial prohibition force used by his predecessor, Governor Clarence Morely. Adams had actually campaigned against the force but brought it back as the state strike police, possibly to avoid calling in the more expensive National Guard.¹⁶ 

The new police force was under the direction of Louis Scherf. He and his men raised tensions with the protesters almost immediately. On November 6th, Scherf and seventeen strike officers arrested seven speakers who were about to address a crowd of protesters in Berwind, Colorado. They beat the speakers and, despite being under orders not to open fire, were all armed with pistols. That same day, roughly one thousand strikers gathered in Lafayette for a rally; two hundred of them then marched into Columbine Mine.¹⁷

On November 7th, Adams further expanded the strike police and sent them to the southern fields. When three thousand people rallied at a monument to the Ludlow Massacre, a 1914 slaughter of coal strikers, four airplanes controlled by the strike police flew overhead. One of them was armed with bombs. Meanwhile, in the north, protesters blocked the road leading to Serene and for the first time were able to halt production at Columbine Mine.¹⁸

Tensions at Columbine Mine

On November 8th, a large parade marched through Serene and the Columbine camp. County sheriffs tried and failed to arrest some protesters, who were defended by swarms of picketers that prevented police from getting close enough to arrest their targets. The picketers also convinced some scabs to join their movement, and the number of people working at the Columbine Mine fell to just 75.¹⁹

The arrests the strike police made in the southern fields may have angered and motivated protesters, as roughly one thousand men, women, and children all demonstrated at Columbine Mine at 4 o’clock on the morning of November 12. Another mass rally was held on November 14th. When it marched through Columbine, Weld County sheriffs were once again unable to arrest anyone due to the sheer size of the crowd. That seems to have been a turning point, as strike policemen then told newspaper reporters that the state strike police officers were going to begin enforcing the law in Weld County.²⁰

Columbine Mine closed for fortification on November 15th. Governor Adams sent twelve strike police officers to the northern coal mine, and when it reopened the next day, it was guarded by thirty-fix armed men and two machine guns. Notably, the state legislature only allocated $18,600 for emergency state police funding. Since November 4th, $16,000 of that money had been spent. By November 17th, only a few hundred dollars remained.²¹ It was crucial for Adams to end the strike before the funding for the state police ran out.

The Columbine Mine Massacre

As the sun rose on November 21st, roughly 500 people arrived to parade through Columbine and Serene as they had for the past few weeks. For the first time, however, they found the gates locked. They were met with local sheriffs, RMFC officials, and at least twenty armed state police. Louis Scherf was among the strike police, and he told the crowd they would not be allowed to protest that day. They insisted on their right to march through the company town, and Scherf demanded to talk to their leaders. The strikers responded by saying they were all leaders.²²

The stories of what happened next conflict. Scherf testified that the crowd stormed through the gate unprovoked and attacked the police with knives and rocks. He claimed he gave them verbal warnings to stop, then fired an ineffective warning shot. Left with no other options, he gave his men the order to fire into the crowd.²³

The protesters that witnessed the massacre were not called to testify but showed up at the Weld County Coroner’s office regardless, insisting on telling their story. They argued that after telling Scherf they were all leaders, he began yelling and threatening them. One of the protesters, Adam Bell, began to argue with one of the police officers, and both men tried to climb the fence. Picketers testified that Bell was pulled over the fence by the policeman and beaten. They claimed that they had no choice but to push the fence down in order to save Bell. They stated that, per strike instructions, they carried no weapons with them. However, they admitted to fighting back when the police began to attack them. In the midst of the violence, the police knocked down the picketing flag bearer and trampled the American flag. One eyewitness claimed a woman named Elizabeth Veranek tried to shield the flag with her own body, after which it was picked up and someone tried to continue marching with it.²⁴

It did not take long for shots to be fired, and World War I veterans that participated in the protests testified that the bullets came so fast that they had to have come from machine guns. People began to flee from the mine and soon returned with cars draped in white flags in order to collect the injured.²⁵

Two men, John Eastenes and Nick Spanandakis, were killed immediately. Jerry Davis, Rene Jacques, and George Kovovitch, died by sunset. Although doctors amputated both of his legs in an attempt to save his life, Mike Vidovich died of gangrene by the end of the week. He was the last to die as a result of the Columbine Massacre.²⁶

Aftermath of the Massacre

In spite of the testimony protesters gave, the County Coroner ultimately ruled that the strikers that had been killed were “assembled and invading the mine property after having been properly and legally warned not to enter,” meaning that the deaths were “not felonious.” ²⁷ No one would be charged for any of the six deaths. Following the Massacre, the IWW largely lost control over the strikes, as many protesters refused to risk their lives.²⁸

The day after the Massacre, Governor Adams ordered 325 men to occupy the area surrounding the mine and declared martial law in the northern fields. He also decided to finally mobilize the National Guard, however he never sent them to the Columbine Mine. Instead, they remained in Denver, ninety miles north east of the site of the Massacre. Despite his activation of the Guard, Adams still trusted the state police, allowing them to deal with any unrest for the remainder of the strike.²⁹ As a result of the martial law in the northern fields, the largest protests shifted to the south. There, demonstrators were often arrested or attacked by the strike police. This went on for for the remainder of the strike, until workers finally voted to end it at a meeting near Walsenburg on February 19th, 1928.³⁰

Significance

Governmental Anti-Reform Sentiment

The Columbine Mine Massacre demonstrates the strong push against reform in the 1920s. Part of this was caused by “the political and economic climate that strangled union and worker initiative.”³¹ Indeed, the Colorado state government’s direct involvement in suppressing the strikes was an effort to protect the interests of large corporations. By refusing to legally recognize the strikes, arresting IWW leaders and protesters, and of course firing upon demonstrators at Columbine Mine, the Colorado government demonstrated its willingness to intervene on behalf of coal companies at the expense of workers. The government’s defense of its actions also demonstrates its anti-labor stance, as Governor Adams blamed victims of the shooting by claiming that Scherf had only “ordered his men to fire only when it appeared that his own life and those of his deputies where in jeopardy.” ³²

Public Anti-Reform Sentiment

The public reaction to the Massacre also demonstrates America’s hostility towards the reform movement in the 1920s. During the First Red Scare, when the workers’ rights movement was tainted with the threat of communism, most Americans were afraid of or unsympathetic towards workers and unions. ³³ Newspaper articles from the wake of the Massacre show the animosity many people held towards striking works. For example, one headline refers to the protesters as a mob and writes that the strike officers were “protecting the Columbine Mine.” ³⁴ The antagonistic manner in which the strikers are discussed, combined with the heroic characterization of the state strike police, exhibits the strong anti-reform sentiment seen during the 1920s. Recognizing the push against reform allows for a deeper understanding of what led to the 1927 Columbine Mine Massacre.

Citations

Bibliography

• “1,000 Coal Miners Are Affected by Columbine Award.” Rocky Mountain News. (Denver, CO), October 29, 1927. Accessed May 5, 2026. https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=RMD19271029-01. 
• “2 Miners Die, 3 Hurt As Police Fire on Mob.” Brooklyn Daily Times. (New York, NY), November 21, 1927.
• “Campbell-Hale, Leigh. Remembering Ludlow but Forgetting the Columbine: The 1927-1928 Colorado Coal Strike. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2023.
• “Columbine Miners Not Satisfied with Wage Increase Given Them.” Daily Times. (Longmont, CO), October 29, 1927. Accessed May 5, 2026. https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=TDT19271029-01. 
• “Company Makes Reply to Columbine Miners.” Daily Times. (Longmount, CO), October 28, 1927. https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=TDT19271028-01. 
• “Coroner’s Jury Blames Strikers for Deaths Columbine Mine Battle.” Fort Collins Coloradoan. (Fort Collins, CO), November 25, 1927.
• Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang. 1995.
• “Four Strikers Killed in Riot in Coal Fields.” Buffalo Evening News. (Buffalo, NY), November 21, 1927. 
• “Gov. Adams Meets Striking Miners Not Affiliated With the I. W. W.” Boulder Daily Camera. (Boulder, CO), October 27, 1927. Accessed May 5, 2026. https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=BDC19271027-01. 
• “Industrial Commission Investigates Demand of Weld County Miners.” Daily Times. (Longmont, CO), October 27, 1927. Accessed May 5, 2026. https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=TDT19271027-01.
• “Miners In North Field Accept Pay Increase.” Rocky Mountain News, (Denver, CO), October 30, 1927. Accessed May 5, 2026. https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=RMD19271030-01. 
• “Miners Returning to Work at Columbine Mine, Force Gains 60 Since First Day of Strike.” Longmont Daily Call. (Longmont, CO), November 2, 1927. Accessed May 5, 2026. https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=LDC19271102-01. 
• “Thousands of Colorado Coal Miners Strike Under Orders of I. W. W.” Boulder Daily Camera. (Boulder, CO), October 18, 1927. Accessed May 5, 2026. https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=BDC19271018-01.2.9.

Suggested Resources

• “Colorado Historic Newspapers Collection.” Colorado State Library. Accessed May 5, 2026. https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=p&p=home&e=——-en-20–1-byDA-img-txIN%7CtxCO%7CtxTA-columbine+mine——-0——.
• “Columbine Mine Incident Collection.” University of Colorado Boulder Libraries, Rare and Distinctive Collections, https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/518.
• Kerwin, Hugh L. “Industrial Disputes: Strikes and Lockouts in the United States in November, 1927.” Monthly Labor Review 26, no. 1, (1928): 111-120, https://www.jstor.org/stable/41860658.

Grace Martinez

Grace Martinez is a Ramapo college history major with a minor in museum & exhibition studies.

www.linkedin.com/in/%20grace-martinezz

Atlantic City & 1920s Tourism

Atlantic City, one of New Jersey’s most famous coastal vacation spots, was established in 1854 when a track was created from Camden, NJ, crossing the Delaware River from Philadelphia to the shore. This resulted in a major increase in tourism. As tourism boomed, a town was built behind the beach and wooden hotels began to line up the area. This increase of tourism left many to see profitable business.

Atlantic City developed the reputation of being both a restful vacation destination and a lively spot for amusements. The city’s signature rolling chairs started off as mere wheelchairs for visitors to use from hotel to hotel. It gradually evolved into a rental business as others joined in. By 1892, rolling chairs had become a popular trend, and by the 1920s, they were widely used. The city officially became a place where middle class people could pretend to be rich, with show business attractions becoming their popular source of entertainment.² Business leaders began to build luxurious spots for middle class tourists, and by the 1920s, the middle class had come to dominate the new consumer culture. This new middle class, typically men, sought personal satisfaction in leisure and consumption.³ It was this very class that motivated local businessmen to create one of America’s most famous pageants, the “Miss America” pageant.

The Very First Miss America Pageant in 1921

The 1920s marked a decade when businessmen sought to rise into a more idealized position. Even small businessmen made an effort to present themselves as dedicated to civic life.⁴ In fact, it was local small businessmen who created the pageant. The “Miss America Pageant” owes its existence to a man named Conrad Eckholm, owner of a hotel named the Monticello. He proposed to have the Atlantic City Business Men’s League sponsor a week-long event that extended the Labor Day weekend. This proposal’s goal was to benefit smaller side hotels that were not on the boardwalk, including his own. They donated around $5,916 towards this event and named it the “Fall Frolic of 1920.”.⁵ It would not yet feature the beauty pageant until the following year. Instead, they hosted an hour-long “Rolling Chair Parade”. After the 1920 event, an Atlantic City newspaperman, Harry Finely, suggested a beauty contest to be added to the next Fall Frolic. When gathered in a meeting with the city’s managers, he proposed that newspapers throughout many cities should run the contest. This contest would choose the “most popular young woman” in their respective city. To create a more “appropriate” way to host a beauty contest for the middle class, newspapers helped by having people send in photos of contestants instead of letting contestants sign up themselves. Liking the idea, the President of the Chamber Commerce, Sam P. Leeds, presented Finley’s proposal to the Hotelsman Association. They agreed to have these women compete against other Inter-City contestants at the Frolic. Many East Coast newspapers ran this popularity contest, calling it the “Inter-City Beauties” contest. Cities like Pittsburgh, Washington D.C., Baltimore, Philadelphia, Jersey City, and Newark held summer events where women were judged on their beauty and impression. The winners from each city would then win a free trip to Atlantic City to attend the Fall Frolic. On July 24, 1921, The Washington Post announced the winners of their contest, with the first prize winner being sixteen year old Margaret Gorman.⁶ On September 2, 1921, the Camden Daily Courier announced Kathryne Gearson as the winner to represent South Jersey. She would later be given the title “Miss Camden” for the pageant.⁷ Other cities chose their own winners. The women to be sent to Atlantic City were Miss Philadelphia, Nellie Orr, Miss Ocean City, Hazel Harris, Miss Pittsburgh, Thelma Matthews, and Miss Harrisburg, Emma Pharo.

The official pageant began on September 7th, 1921. Hudson Maxim, popularly known as the inventor of smokeless powder, played a character named “King Neptune”. He arrived with a group of “mermaids”, the Inter-City contest winners. They all arrived at the Million Dollar Pier for the opening ceremony. King Neptune and the Inter-City women paraded on a seashell float on the boardwalk. The women later visited the Keith’s Theatre, where a crowd and a panel of judges examined and questioned them. The audience’s favorite was Washington D.C’s, Margaret Gorman, earning her the first trophy. In the evening, Neptune and the women watched a performance by “Dawson’s Dancing Dolls”. The public watched the show with the contestants in full view. At the end of the first day, Neptune and the women attended a costumed ballroom event called “The Frolique”. They sat on a throne display, watching the event take place.⁹

The next day of the pageant featured the Bathers’ Revue, a series of bathing suit contests. All participants and visitors were required to wear one-piece bathing suits. Around one thousand people showed up to watch the Rolling Chair Parade and beauty contests. The Bathers Revue beauty pageant had two sub-categories: “Amateur” and “Professional”.¹⁰ The professional category included professional actresses, dancers, models and swimmers. Across four contests, women competed for the titles of “Most Beautiful” and “Most Beautiful Bathing Beauty.” The overall winner would receive the ultimate prize, the “Golden Mermaid Trophy”, and be crowned the first “Miss America”. Miss Washington, Margaret Gorman, won both the Inter-City Beauty Amateur title and first place in the Inter-City Bather’s Revue, while Miss Philadelphia, Nellie Orr, came in second.

List of Finalists:

Gorman, Saunders, and Salisbury competed against each other for the ultimate title of “Most Beautiful Bathing Girl in America.” A panel of judges and the audience chose the winner. Since the audience favored Gorman the most, she won the “Golden Mermaid Trophy,” earning her title as the very first “Miss America.”. After her victory, reporters and photographers surrounded her as she attended parties held in her honor. The pageant became a huge success, motivating its organizers to host it again the following years.

The 1920s Pageants, Controversies, & the Women’s-Religious Protests

The pageant was so successful that the number of days, activities, attendees, and contestants increased each year. The number of contestants grew from just eight to eighty-three by 1924.¹³ In addition, new rules were added. In the early years, a winning Miss America could reenter the pageant in order to fight for her right to maintain her status. However, after Ruth Malcomson, Miss America 1924, criticized the fairness of allowing professional women to compete, new rules were introduced prohibiting any past winner from reentering. Another rule added was that married women could not become contestants in the pageant. The pageant never explicitly enforced this rule, assuming that this was something the public knew to follow. However, after the discovery of a married contestant, the rule was explicitly put in place. Another change was the audience’s power. Gorman won her place as Miss America with the overwhelming support of the audience. This changed in 1922 when the audience’s votes were eliminated. This granted judges the sole decision of crowning the winner. In addition, a new category, the “evening gown” competition, was introduced to the pageant. By 1923, the pageant gained national recognition, and newspapers all over the country covered its events. Not only did the pageant become more popular, its winners did as well. Mary Campbell, Miss America 1922 and 23, received offers to be in films, musicals, and vaudeville shows. However, she refused these offers to return to school. Miss America 1925, Fay Lanphier, was the first to be in a Hollywood movie and profit from her own tour. This demonstrates that as the pageant grew in popularity, it became more commercialized. It was so commercialized that by 1925, contestants were asked to sign an agreement to appear in a Hollywood film if they won. Contestants also began to promote products on their floats. Pageant promoters, however, did not look favorably upon this. Even so, the 1926 Miss America, Norma Smallwood, made around $100,000 in product endorsements. She would go on to earn a salary that surpassed that of President Coolidge himself.

Although the pageant gained massive popularity, it also sparked controversy amongst religious and women’s groups. In the 1920s, Americans struggled to adjust to modern life while also trying to keep their traditional beliefs and values. Religion was losing its influence on Americans, and Protestantism was no longer a dominant force shaping cultural norms.¹⁴ Religious leaders began to view the popular culture of the 1920s, shaped by materialism and the pursuit of wealth, as a decline in religious values. An example of the “moral decline” that religious groups were concerned with was the display of the female body, especially through bathing suits. They viewed bathing suits and uncovered knees as immoral and improper. By protesting, clergymen contributed to the creation of beach rules that banned or regulated bathing suits.¹⁵ Atlantic City was not an exception. The first year the pageant took place, there were restrictions on bare knees and skin-tight bathing suits. However, the competitions were temporarily exempt from these restrictions. This contributed to the protests against the pageant. In September of 1923, The Ocean City Camp Meeting Association held an annual reunion. A group of people, including a preacher, created a resolution condemning the bathers’ review of the pageant. The resolution stated “The danger lies in taking girls of tender years and robbing them in attire that transgresses the limit of morality”.¹⁶ Besides religious motivations, feminism also played a role. While many might assume that feminism would oppose restrictions on women’s choices of clothes, a more traditional form of feminism supported these restrictions. Feminists argued that the pageant reduced women to their physical appearance, encouraged rivalry, and exploited them for profit. On April 18, 1924, the New York Times reported that the Y.W.C.A created a resolution that condemned the pageant. They claimed it corrupted women of “pure womanhood” by encouraging vanity and envy.¹⁷ In October of 1924, the Pennsylvania Federation of Women’s Clubs presented a statement that denounced beauty pageants. They encouraged women’s educational and religious groups to do the same. The year of 1927 experienced greater opposition. On September 29, 1927, the National Council of Catholic Women presented a statement that stated the pageant “exploited the feminine beauty of young women for financial gain”.¹⁸ They accused parents of entering their daughters for money and urged other Catholics to oppose these pageants. In November of 1927, the Atlantic County Federation of Church Women protested the pageant and the commercialization of the boardwalk. They called it an immoral influence on women and a barrier to the public’s free use of the area. The pageant organizers tried to ignore these protests, however, they decided to temporarily discontinue the pageant in fear it could damage Atlantic City’s reputation.

Miss America & The Flapper

The “New Woman” of the 1920s symbolized the “modern woman” who entered positions that challenged traditional female roles. They entered the public sphere and exhibited changing sexual attitudes. Similar to the push-back from religious groups against a modern secular society, the modern “New Woman” also faced resistance. In addition to religious controversy, the “Miss America” pageant faced criticism for the commercialization that some of the women became involved in. In its later years, it opened opportunities for women to earn their own money in product endorsements, tours, and even Hollywood films. This being a part of the symbol of the “New Woman”, it led to controversy. Even in its beginnings in 1921, it faced similar criticisms. In August 13, 1921, The New York Times reported that an Oklahoma Congressman sought a beauty pageant ban, stating that “Modern women were thinking more of their looks than of their home”.¹⁹ Despite this, the Miss America pageant had actually served as a form of resistance to the “New Woman,” particularly the image of “The Flapper”. Flappers were young, single women who defied Victorian constraints by rejecting corsets, wearing bobbed hair, dressing in shorter, less shaped skirts, applying darker makeup, and smoking. To combat this image, pageant promoters were interested in promoting girls who resembled a more traditional “Victorian-like” kind of womanhood. These women were subservient, and demonstrated capability of being a good wife, homemaker, and mother. Contestants were expected to show no interest in pursuing public careers, instead valuing marriage. Pageant judges and audiences favored contestants who acted and dressed in a way that differed from flappers. Contestants were often accompanied by their mothers and acted surprised in their success in order to maintain an “innocent” image. Additionally, contestants with unbobbed, conservatively styled hair and no dark makeup were praised.²⁰

Despite the festive atmosphere of Atlantic City, contestants were portrayed as church-attending women who abstained from gambling, smoking, and drinking alcohol. Promoters were eager to present the pageant as “above” these vices. These portrayals were essential to the image of “Miss America”, representing the ideal of what they believed the American woman in the 1920s should look like. “Miss America” winners of the 1920s, who possessed these characteristics, were often reported in newspapers. First Miss America, Margaret Gorman, was praised for “possessing the basic virtues of American womanhood”.²¹ Similarly, the 1922-23 winner, Mary Campbell, was admired for her “innocent, wholesome, and traditional” demeanor. The 1924 winner, Ruth Malcomson, stood out for rarely wearing makeup and never having visited a hairdresser. The 1927 winner, Lois Delander, was recognized for her knowledge of Bible verses, along with her refusal to use makeup or tobacco. The Washington Post reported that she was an “Unbobbed high school student.”. The New Britain Herald reported that the 1925 winner, Fay Lanphier, had “blonde unbobbed hair and did not engage in smoking cigarettes,”. The New York Times reported that the 1926 winner, Norma Smallwood, was a “Western girl whose hair was unbobbed.”.²² Overall, pageant promoters wished for these women to represent traditional, Victorian-like ideals of femininity, hoping they would serve as models for other women.

Miss America & The Suffragette

While the “Miss America” pageant openly defied the image of the “modern” flapper, it also subtly defied another kind of “New Woman” of the 1920s, the woman in politics. The concept of a “pageant” has ties to women’s groups of the 19th century, including reform groups, church groups, and schoolteachers. These groups practiced “pageantry” as a form of public entertainment to promote their movements and goals. As early as 1848, the first Women’s Rights convention in Seneca Falls featured elements of pageantry to showcase women’s unity within the movement.²⁵ One of the primary goals of Women’s Rights advocates was the right to vote, known as suffrage. These “suffragettes” were inspired during their travels to England by the pageants hosted by British suffragists. The National American Woman’s Suffrage Association began hosting their own pageants in 1908 with the largest being held in 1913. The National Woman Suffrage Parade & Pageant in Washington D.C. was hosted the day before Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration. The pageant celebrated women’s contributions to democracy and society by dressing up as figures that represented “Lady Columbia”, “Liberty”, “Justice”, and “Peace”.²⁶ These suffragettes sought to raise awareness of their goals, celebrate their unity, and demonstrate their belief in women’s moral value to the vote. Many of these suffragettes would remain politically active in the 1920s, contributing to the presence of women in politics and reforms. They continued the practice of political pageantry through the “Equal Rights” pageants hosted by the Woman’s Party. The Miss America pageant incorporated elements that resembled these suffrage pageants. Not only was it also labeled a “pageant”, the Miss America pageant followed the suffrage tradition of holding parades. Contestants even wore sashes with the names of their states or cities, closely resembling those worn by suffragettes.²⁷ However, instead of promoting social progress and intellectualism, the “Miss America” pageant was based on beauty as defined by the male and public population. Rather than women’s unity under a shared movement, it encouraged competition. Lastly, instead of raising funds for a cause, it focused on commercialization and entertainment. The pageant acted as a reaction to, or alternative version of, the more political pageants, instead promoting a “less threatening” subservient image of women.

Significance

I chose the first Miss America pageant because I was unaware that its origins trace back to the 1920s. After its success in 1921, it quickly evolved from a small, city-based competition into a nationally recognized event attracting participants from across the country. Newspapers, and later radios, covered the pageants. While it became an anticipated event, it received backlash.

At first, the “Miss America” pageant seems like a trivial event. However, it can enhance our understanding of the decade. The first pageants of the 1920s embodied both the stereotypical image of the decade as one of entertainment, fun, and consumerism and as a response to, or even a challenge against, the changing cultural norms of the era. The pageant ironically included elements that strayed from the Victorian image while also reinforcing it. Religious-Women’s groups viewed the display of the female body for competition as immoral. To the perspective of many, it encouraged women to prioritize their beauty over other aspects of their life. It also served as a gateway to wealth, (an image often associated with the decade today) which was seen as immoral by religious groups. It reinforced older values by rejecting one of the most recognizable symbols of the decade, “The Flapper”. The pageant attempted to reject this “new modern woman” by rewarding contestants who resembled her as little as possible. It also provided a version of pageantry that did not showcase women and their social-political interests. 

The controversies that it experienced still remain relevant today, as the backlash seen in the 1920s resurfaced in the late 1960s and beyond. Women’s Liberation feminists argued that the pageant focused on “problematic beauty standards” and reduced women to their physical appearance.

Bibliography

Simon, Bryant. Boardwalk of Dreams: Atlantic City and the Fate of Urban America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Watson, E., ed. “There She Is, Miss America”: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.

Riverol, Armando. Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television. “Chapter 2: The Frolicking ’20s,” 10-26.

Watson, Elwood, and Darcy Martin. “The Miss America Pageant: Pluralism, Femininity, and Cinderella All in One.” Journal of Popular Culture 34, no. 1 (June 1, 2000): 105–26. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.2000.3401_105.x. 

“History.” Miss America. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://missamerica.org/history/.

 Latham, Angela J. 1995. “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity.’” Journal of Popular Culture 29 (3): 149–67. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.1995.00149.x. 

Chapman, Mary. 1999. “Women and Masquerade in the 1913 Suffrage Demonstration in Washington.” Amerikastudien 44 (3): 343–55. https://research-ebsco-com.library2.ramapo.edu:2443/linkprocessor/plink?id=755f8783-eb91-350f-b634-02d97c8d0cb5. 

Moore, Sarah J. 1997. “Making a Spectacle of Suffrage: The National Women Suffrage..” Journal of American Culture (01911813) 20 (1): 89. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734x.1997.00089.x.https://research-ebsco-com.library2.ramapo.edu:2443/c/7frumr/viewer/pdf/ve7e6ydlxr 

Jones, Jennifer. 1998. “The Beauty Queen as Deified Sacrificial Victim.” Theatre History Studies 18 (June): 99–106. https://research-ebsco-com.library2.ramapo.edu:2443/linkprocessor/plink?id=3696314d-a08a-3a3a-9756-878c3fa4a653.

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang, 1995. 

“Here Are the Winners in the Beauty Contest.” The Washington Post (1877–1922), July 24, 1921. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection, pg. 5. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress.

“Camden Girl Is Chosen as Miss South Jersey for Pa. Geanta T Shore.” Camden Daily Courier, September 2, 1921. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress.

“Seeks Beauty Contest Ban: Oklahoma Congressman Says Women Like Looks More Than Men.” New York Times, August 13, 1921, 13. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times.

“ATTACKS BATHING REVIEW.: PREACHER SAYS ATLANTIC CITY EVENT ENDANGERS YOUTHFUL MORALS.” New York Times (1923–), September 11, 1923. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/attacks-bathing-review/docview/103107222/se-2.

“Y.W.C.A. Opens War on Beauty Contest; Calls Atlantic City Parade Peril to Girls.” New York Times (1923–), April 18, 1924. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/y-w-c-opens-war-on-beauty-contest-calls-atlantic/docview/103426053/se-2.

“New Queen of Beauty Has Not Bobbed Hair.” New Britain Herald, New Britain, CT, September 12, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82014519/1925-09-12/ed-1/seq-1/

“Western Girl Wins Miss America Title: Miss Norma Smallwood of Tulsa.” Special to The New York Times. New York Times (1923–), September 11, 1926. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection, p. 15.

“CATHOLIC WOMEN’S RESOLUTION BANS BEAUTY CONTESTS: PROPOSALS THAT ATTACK EXHIBITION OF GIRLS BACKED BY 100. DELINQUENCY CITED; PARENTS BLAMED LEADERS IN WELFARE WORK SAY THEY FIND MENACE IN PULCHRITUDE SHOWS. CATHOLIC WOMEN HIT BEAUTY CONTESTS.” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 27, 1927. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/catholic-womens-resolution-bans-beauty-contests/docview/149667923/se-2.

“Catholic Women Adopt Ban on Beauty Contests: Exploitation of ‘Feminine Pulchritude’ for ‘Commercial Purposes’ is Denounced in Resolution Approved Unanimously by National Council Convention. CATHOLIC WOMEN BAN BEAUTY COMPETITIONS.” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 29, 1927. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/catholic-women-adopt-ban-on-beauty-contests/docview/149693598/se-2.

“Miss Illinois, Blonde, Wins Beauty West Contest: 16-Year-Old Unbobbed …” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 10, 1927. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection.

Paul Thompson. Literary Suffragettes. [ca. 1913]. Topical Press Agency, Hulton Archive, Getty Images. Photograph.

L & M Ottenheimer, publisher. Liberty and Her Attendants – (Suffragette’s Tableau) in Front of Treasury Bldg. March 3, 1913 – Washington, D.C. National Woman’s Party Records. Library of Congress.

R.C. Maxwell Company. BOARDWALK. [CROWD LOOKING AT CAMERA], EASTER, MARCH 27, 1921. Maxwell No. 1555. R.C. Maxwell Company Records. David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University.

Bettmann Archive. Contestants at the 1921 Pageant; Miss Atlantic City (Florence Burke), Miss Philadelphia, and Miss Washington, DC. [1921]. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. Miss America 1927 Lois Delander of Joliet, Illinois. Photograph. 1927.

Bettmann Archive. Large Crowd During Street Parade. Original Caption: Atlantic City: Neptune and Miss America in the parade. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. Pageant Attendees Posing Outdoors. Mr. & Mrs. Howard Chandler Christie & Miss Gorman at the Atlantic City Pageant. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. Beauty Pageant Winner and Mythological Accomplice. Original Caption: Atlantic City, N. J.: Miss Margaret Gorman (Miss America) with Hudson Maxim as “Neptune” at the Atlantic City Beauty Pageant. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. “Miss America Contestants Pose for Photograph.” Photograph.

Featured Image: Bettmann Archive. “American Beauty Pageants Winners. Far left Miss Mary Katherine Campbell (retained title); far right, Miss Margaret Gorman, Miss America in 1921 in gowns.” Photograph. Circa 1922. Bettmann Collection via Getty Images.

Additional Sources

“1920s.” Maxwell Did It!: Photographing the Atlantic City Boardwalk, 1920s-1950s. Duke University Libraries. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://exhibits.library.duke.edu/exhibits/show/maxwell/1920s.

“Beauty Pageant Origins and Culture.” American Experience. PBS. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/missamerica-beauty-pageant-origins-and-culture/.”

“Woman Suffrage Pageants.” National Park Service. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/suffrage-pageants.htm

PBS. “Miss America Timeline.” American Experience. Last modified March 3, 2025. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/miss-america-timeline/.

“History.” Miss America. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://missamerica.org/history/.

Ware, Susan. “Sashes and Suffrage.” New York Times, August 15, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/15/opinion/sashes-suffrage-19th-amendment.html.

Citations

1. R.C. Maxwell Company, BOARDWALK. [CROWD LOOKING AT CAMERA], EASTER, MARCH 27, 1921, Maxwell No. 1555, R.C. Maxwell Company Records, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University. ︎
2. Bryant Simon, Boardwalk of Dreams: Atlantic City and the Fate of Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 19-24. ︎
3. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 85-86. ︎
4. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 32. ︎
5. Armando Riverol, Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992), 12. ︎
6. “Here Are the Winners in the Beauty Contest.” The Washington Post (1877-1922), July 24, 1921. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection, pg. 5. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. ︎
7. “Camden Girl Is Chosen as Miss South Jersey for Pa. Geanta T Shore.” Camden Daily Courier, September 2, 1921. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. ︎
8. Bettmann Archive, Pageant Attendees Posing Outdoors. Mr. & Mrs. Howard Chandler Christie & Miss Gorman at the Atlantic City Pageant; and Beauty Pageant Winner and Mythological Accomplice. Original Caption: Atlantic City, N. J.: Miss Margaret Gorman (Miss America) with Hudson Maxim as “Neptune” at the Atlantic City Beauty Pageant, Photographs. ︎
9. Riverol, Live from Atlantic City, 12-16. ︎
10. Riverol, Live from Atlantic City, 17-18. ︎
11. Bettmann Archive, Large Crowd During Street Parade. Original Caption: Atlantic City: Neptune and Miss America in the parade, Photograph. ︎
12. Bettmann Archive, Miss America 1927 Lois Delander of Joliet, Illinois, Photograph, 1927. ︎
13. Riverol, Live from Atlantic City, 22. ︎
14. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 169-171. ︎
15. Angela J. Latham, “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity,’” Journal of Popular Culture 29, no. 3 (1995): 158. ︎
16. “ATTACKS BATHING REVIEW.: PREACHER SAYS ATLANTIC CITY EVENT ENDANGERS YOUTHFUL MORALS.” New York Times (1923-), Sep 11, 1923. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/attacks-bathing-review/docview/103107222/se-2. ︎
17. “Y.W.C.A. Opens War on Beauty Contest; Calls Atlantic City Parade Peril to Girls.” New York Times (1923-), Apr 18, 1924. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/y-w-c-opens-war-on-beauty-contest-calls-atlantic/docview/103426053/se-2. ︎
18. “Catholic Women Adopt Ban on Beauty Contests: Exploitation of “Feminine Pulchritude” for “Commercial Purposes” is Denounced in Resolution Approved Unanimously by National Council Convention. CATHOLIC WOMEN BAN BEAUTY COMPETITIONS.” The Washington Post (1923-1954), Sep 29, 1927. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/catholic-women-adopt-ban-on-beauty-contests/docview/149693598/se-2 ︎
19. “Seeks Beauty Contest Ban: Oklahoma Congressman Says Women Like Looks More Than Men.” New York Times, August 13, 1921, 13. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times. ︎
20. Elwood Watson, ed., There She Is, Miss America: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 36-38. ︎
21. Elwood Watson and Darcy Martin, “The Miss America Pageant: Pluralism, Femininity, and Cinderella All in One,” Journal of Popular Culture 34, no. 1 (June 1, 2000): 107. ︎
22. “Miss Illinois, Blonde, Wins Beauty West Contest: 16-Year-Old Unbobbed …,” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 10, 1927, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection; “New Queen of Beauty Has Not Bobbed Hair,” New Britain Herald (New Britain, CT), September 12, 1925, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82014519/1925-09-12/ed-1/seq-1/; “Western Girl Wins Miss America Title: Miss Norma Smallwood of Tulsa,” special to The New York Times, New York Times (1923–), September 11, 1926, p. 15, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection. ︎
23. L & M Ottenheimer, publisher, Liberty and Her Attendants – (Suffragette’s Tableau) in Front of Treasury Bldg. March 3, 1913 – Washington, D.C., National Woman’s Party Records, Library of Congress. ︎
24. Paul Thompson, Literary Suffragettes, ca. 1913, Topical Press Agency, Hulton Archive, Getty Images; and Bettmann Archive, Contestants at the 1921 Pageant; Miss Atlantic City (Florence Burke), Miss Philadelphia, and Miss Washington, DC, 1921, Photographs. ︎
25. Jennifer Jones, “The Beauty Queen as Deified Sacrificial Victim,” Theatre History Studies 18 (June 1998): 102. ︎
26. Mary Chapman, “Women and Masquerade in the 1913 Suffrage Demonstration in Washington,” Amerikastudien 44, no. 3 (1999): 344-345. ︎
27. Jones, “The Beauty Queen as Deified Sacrificial Victim,” 102. ︎

grlynn

Grlynn is a Ramapo College senior majoring in history

As the context in which history is interpreted changes, historical interpretations change as well. For example, the way that historians view minority groups today is very different from how historians viewed minority groups in the 1920s. In the same vein, historians’ entire outlook on a decade can change with time. This historiographical change is apparent in two pieces of writing on the 1920s which I read:  “Shifting Perspectives on the 1920s,” written by Henry May in 1956, and “The New Woman and the Politics of the 1920s”  written by Lynn Dumenil in 2007. While both articles argue the transitional and fluid nature of the 1920s, they emphasize different parts of this decade’s history, with May’s article focusing on economic and social change, and Dumenil’s article focusing on women and political change. 

Comparison

In Henry May’s article, he focuses more on different trends in historical writing over different decades. First, he outlines how historians felt in the 1930s:  that the twenties “became a deplorable interlude of reaction.”¹ Then, he explains how historians felt in the 1940s:  that “in the twenties a deep chasm had opened between the views of life of most writers and their fellow citizens.”² And finally, he provides his viewpoint, how historians feel in the 1950s:  that “the most important developments in the decade did not take place in the realms of politics, or economics, or literature, or science alone, but in all these areas and the relation, or lack of relation, among them.”³ Essentially, what these three quotes show is that May outlined three distinct views of the twenties, from one that saw them as reactionary, to one that saw them as having a large divide between the upper and lower class, to one that saw them as a period of separate movements that all encouraged change. May’s main focus was on larger themes of the 1920s, specifically looking at cultural, political, and economic trends to understand the decade.

On the other hand, Dumenil took an almost completely opposite approach. Instead of focusing on larger trends to understand the decade, Dumenil looked at more specific themes like women’s roles and their part in politics in order to understand and assess the decade. By looking through a gender-based lens, Dumenil shows women’s opportunity for influence in the public sphere while also showing the limitations women had in politics and work. Specifically, Dumenil’s main purpose in her article was to focus on “African American and white women’s efforts to expand their political influence once enfranchised. Their activism illustrates women’s role in developing political pressure groups in the early twentieth century and demonstrates both the continuation of reform—and its limits—in the so-called “jazz age.”⁴  Dumenil’s article focuses heavily on women and looks at minority involvement in making change in the 1920s.

Historiographical Changes Over Time

Overall, both of these historians have very different views on the 1920s, which are influenced by the 50 years of difference between their writing. While May was writing post WWII and on the dawn of the Cold War, he likely was looking at history in terms of political and economical struggles which were all still affecting his decade. While he discusses the different historical interpretations of the 1920s, he never calls any of them a “wrong” interpretation, as he follows consensus beliefs of shared American values, which he highlights in his interpretation of the decade. The large focus of his writing is on business and political history during the 1920s, specifically on how the boom and bust of the stock market influenced social change throughout the decade. Just like this photo to the right shows, people had a large increase in purchases with their disposable income in the 1920s, and quickly needed to sell these items in the 1930s, which is why, May argues, historians in the 1930s had a more negative view of the 1920s as they were actively dealing with the repercussions of this decade. While May takes into account many different perspectives of the 1920s, he completely ignores the New Woman and the plethora of contributions made by minorities in the 1920s.

Fifty years later, the context for Dumenil’s writing is very different from the world that May was writing in. During the multicultural wave of the 21st century, Dumenil wrote during a time that was focused on social and cultural history, minority history, and revisionist history. Her work which focuses on a group that was not always the highlight of 1920s historiography (specifically in regards to African American women) shows how, with time, historiography has become more liberal in its understanding of minority involvement in general trends and changes in history over time. Just as her article looks at women’s impact on the 1920s, Dumenil’s textbook, which we use in class, further looks at the impacts of minority groups in the 1920s. In The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, Lynn Dumenil assesses how African Americans, women, immigrants and lower or working class citizens all had distinct impacts on the cultural and social reforms of the 1920s. She discusses each different minority group, and explains how overall, the impacts of these different minority groups on the 1920s helped to “broaden the definition of what it meant to be American.”⁵ Therefore, through Dumenil’s writing in a time which emphasized the importance of multicultural history we can see how much historical interpretations of the same decade have changed over time. Looking at past historical interpretations of history has shown me that while the facts of history have not changed, the way that history is understood changes depending on the context in which people are writing about it.

1. Henry May. “Shifting Perspectives on the 1920s,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review (Dec. 1956), p. 412. ︎
2. May, Shifting Perspectives, 1956, 418 ︎
3. May, Shifting Perspectives, 1956, 426 ︎
4. Lynn Dumenil. “The New Woman and the Politics of the 1920s.” OAH Magazine of History (July 2007), p. 22. ︎
5. Lynn Dumenil. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. United States: Hill and Wang, 2024, 302. ︎

hannahsteinlauf

Hannah Steinlauf is a senior history major with a minor in museum and exhibition studies at Ramapo College. She is a student research aide for the Jane Addams Papers Project. She is a member of the Ramapo College Dance Company and Tri Sigma. Hannah is going to attend Trinity College Dublin for a masters degree in Public History after graduation.

In the 1920s, American culture was increasingly becoming more secularized, creating tensions between modernity and traditional religious values. The first “Miss America” pageants embodied these conflicts, as it became both a target of religious resistance and a reflection of a callback to older ideas. Americans struggled to balance adapting to modernity while preserving their traditional beliefs and values. Religion was losing its influence on Americans with many standards straying away from the strictness of Victorian attitudes. Religion and Protestantism was no longer a dominant force in cultural norms and in efforts to maintain religion, urban churches started programs that created places of worship alongside spaces for social, recreational, and educational purposes. However, many religious leaders, including Protestant ministers and Jewish leaders, faced declining attendance and decreasing support for missionary efforts. These leaders viewed the popular culture of the 1920s, dominated by materialism and the pursuit of wealth, as a decline in religious values. Religious fundamentalists and Evangelical Christians also feared that the country was experiencing a moral and spiritual decline.¹ The first “Miss America” pageants of the 1920s serve as an example of an event that religious groups sought to oppose through protests, aiming to dismantle what they considered a moral decline. The “Miss America” pageant included a bathing suit competition, which many religious groups opposed. They sought to combat the rise of swimwear in the 1920s, particularly for women, viewing it as immoral and immodest. Moral outrage from clergymen contributed to the censorship of physical appearances on public beaches, as they insisted that women cover their knees.² This influenced the “Miss America” pageant because of its emphasis on “bathing beauties”. The pageant was met with further resistance with religious groups claiming it damaged the good choices, reputation, and morals of young women. Groups like Southern Baptists and the “Atlantic County Federation of Church Women”, joined in resistance and protest. Not only did they believe it damaged women’s morals, but they also viewed it as the exploitation of women for financial gain and corrupting them by encouraging rivalry among themselves.³ These protests are credited as having an important role in why the pageant was temporarily paused in 1928 through the early 30s.

Ironically, while traditional religious groups opposed the pageant for being “immoral”, it was an event that eagerly promoted a “traditional” and “conservative” idea of femininity. The “Miss America” pageant aimed to uphold the image of a more traditional woman, distancing itself from  the “New Woman,” represented by women in politics and flappers. Before the “Miss America” pageant was established in 1921, suffragettes held suffrage pageants. They dressed up as influential women in history, seeking to raise public awareness and funds for their political efforts.⁴ However, the “Miss America” pageant focused only on beauty, based on what men and the audience viewed as beautiful. In addition, the pageant strived to distance itself from the flapper image. Flappers were young, single women who strayed away from Victorian constraints by wearing bobbed hair, shorter and less shaped skirts, darker makeup, and smoked. In contrast, the “Miss America” pageant praised “non threatening” women who had conservative hairstyles such as longer hair, were more subservient, viewed beauty as an important goal, and demonstrated capability of being a good wife, homemaker, and mother.⁵ Contestants who had longer hair were more often praised than those with bobbed or bobbed-like hair. It was an important characteristic for “Miss America” to have, especially in the earlier competitions. Pageant organizers also tried to portray the event as “above alcohol” or other habits such as smoking. Overall, the pageant wished to portray its winners as symbols of what a 1920s American woman “should be and look like”. While religious traditionalists viewed it as immoral, the pageant still sought to revive a more traditional ideal of Victorian-like femininity and virtue.

Bibliography

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang, 1995.

Riverol, Armando. Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992.

Latham, Angela J. “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity.'” Journal of Popular Culture 29, no. 3 (1995): 149–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3840.1995.00149.x.

Watson, Elwood, and Darcy Martin. “The Miss America Pageant: Pluralism, Femininity, and Cinderella All in One.” Journal of Popular Culture 34, no. 1 (June 1, 2000): 105–26. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.2000.3401_105.x.  

Watson, E., ed. “There She Is, Miss America”: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.

Bettmann Archive. Policewomen Checking Length Violations. Chicago, Illinois, 1921.

Bettmann Archive. 1924 Miss America from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Ruth Malcomson. 1924.

Thomas, Bob. Cinema Personalities, 1923, American Actress Colleen Moore. Popperfoto/Getty Images, 1923.

Featured Photo: Atlantic Foto Service. Contestants of the 1925 Miss America Pageant. Atlantic City, New Jersey, 1925.

Citations

1. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 169-186. ︎
2. Angela J. Latham, “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity,’” Journal of Popular Culture 29, no. 3 (1995): 158, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3840.1995.00149.x. ︎
3. Armando Riverol, Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992), 24. ︎
4. Elwood Watson, ed., “There She Is, Miss America”: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 28-29. ︎
5. Watson, “There She Is, Miss America”, 32. ︎

grlynn

Grlynn is a Ramapo College senior majoring in history

The history of the stock market dates back to the 17^th century, when the first stock exchange was established in Amsterdam in 1602.  The Dutch East India Company issued shares of stock to the public to raise capital for its trading ventures, and these shares were bought and sold on a stock exchange.  This marked the beginning of modern stock markets, which have since become an important part of the global economy.  In the United States, the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) was founded in 1792, when a group of stockbrokers signed the Buttonwood Agreement to trade securities in New York City.  The agreement was a response to a need for a more organized and regulated stock market, which had been growing rapidly in the United States.  Under the terms of the agreement, the signatories pledged to deal only with each other and to charge a minimum commission of one quarter of one percent on all trades.  They also agreed to refrain from trading securities that were not publicly held, and abide by rules that would govern their dealings.  The Buttonwood Agreement helped to establish the principles of transparency and trust that are still fundamental to the operation of the modern stock market.  It paved the way for the creation of the New York Stock Exchange, which became the most important stock exchange in the world.  The NYSE grew to become the largest and most prestigious stock exchange in the world, and it played a central role in the growth of the American economy in the 19^th and 20^th centuries. Over time, other stock exchanges were established around the world, and today there are thousands of stock exchanges and trading platforms around the globe.  This allows investors to buy and sell shares of stock in companies of all sizes and from all sectors of the economy.

            The history of the stock market has been marked by periods of growth and innovation, as well as by crises and instability.  The stock market has played a central role in the growth of the global economy, but it has also been subject to speculation, manipulation, and other forms of abuse.  Despite these challenges, the stock market is still an important tool for raising capital, promoting economic growth, and creating opportunities for investors around the world.

            There are many reasons the stock market is an important component of the economy.  One reason the market is important is it provides a way for companies to raise capital by issuing shares of stock to the public.  This capital can be used to fund new projects, expand operations, and basically invest more in the company to help it grow.  This fuels not only the growth and innovation of the companies, but it also stimulates and grows the economy.  Another reason is the stock market allows individuals to invest in companies and earn a return on these investments.  Individuals can invest in the growth of a company and benefit from that company’s success, though there is always a risk of losing the investment. This concept can help create wealth for individuals, which in turn helps to stimulate the economy.  The stock market is also used as a symbol of the quality of the economy.  For instance, when stock prices are on the rise, it can be a sign of strong economic growth and a decline in prices can indicate economic weakness.  As mentioned earlier, the stock market can allow companies to have more capital for their growth, therefore when companies use this capital to become successful and grow it creates more job opportunities to keep up with the growth and demand.  This can reduce unemployment which can be a sign of a growing, prosperous economy.  The stock market can also help play a role in helping people build wealth over time on less risky investments to supply funds for their retirements.  The health and stability of the stock market has become crucial to the success of the economy.

            The stock market crash of 1929 was a catastrophic event in the United States that signaled the beginning of the Great Depression.  It occurred on October 24, 1929, also known as “Black Thursday”. The causes of the crash were numerous and complex, including speculative investing, overproduction in industry, a credit boom, and unequal distribution of wealth.  The crash had widespread and devastating effects on the economy, including bank failures, unemployment, and a decrease in consumer spending. The effects of this crash were felt worldwide, especially in the United States, leading to a global economic downturn that lasted until the late 1930’s. Partially due to the lavish living and spending in the roaring 20’s the market crash devastated many people in the United States, becoming one of the multiple causes of the Great Depression, which was a period of extreme financial struggle for many people in the country.  This led to many attempts by the government to create programs and amendments to help the country escape the Great Depression.

Black Thursday 1920’s Significance

Black Thursday was a key event that marked the beginning of the stock market crash of 1929.  On Black Thursday, the market experienced a rapid decline in stock prices, with too many investors attempting to sell their shares out of panic.  The impact of Black Thursday was devastating, it led to widespread bank failures, unemployment, and a decrease in consumer spending.  Over the next several days after Black Thursday, the market continued to plunge, with Black Tuesday on October 29, 1929, being another of the most infamous days of the crash.  On black Thursday and Tuesday, the NYSE experienced a sudden and massive sell-off of stocks, which triggered a chain reaction of panic selling.  By the end of Black Tuesday, the stock market had lost billions of dollars in value, wiping out the savings of countless investors and causing a widespread financial crisis.  These events had a lasting impact on the nation’s economic policies and financial regulations.

Black Thursday was triggered by several factors that had been building up in the years leading up to the event.  One key factor in the crash was stock market speculation.  In the years leading up to Black Thursday, there was a large number of investors buying stocks on margin, which means they were borrowing money to invest in stocks.  This led to a bubble in the stock market, causing prices to rise far beyond their fundamental values. Another trigger was overproduction and underconsumption.  In the 1920’s, there was a great deal of overproduction of goods in many industries, which led to a surplus.  At the same time, many individuals were unable to afford the goods being produced, leading to underconsumption.  This had to do with the unequal distribution of wealth, and created an imbalance in the economy that contributed to the crash. The banking system also had a lack of regulation and oversight, which allowed banks to engage in risky practices such as lending too much money to people who could not pay it back and would invest their loan in the stock market.  This led to high levels of debt that could not be paid back after immense loses in the market. 

This is a significant event of the 1920’s because this era was known for its prosperity and lavish living by many people, even people that did not have the financial stability to live this way.  This had a lot to do with the ability to make purchases on credit and the ability to get loans very easily from banks. The lives of Americans changed drastically after Black Thursday.  The country went from many years of prosperity, quickly changing to a decade of financial turmoil that devastated many people throughout the country.  This vast change in the economy stemming from Black Thursday hurt the citizens of the United States in many ways.  Many people went bankrupt after suffering large monetary loses and losing their jobs from companies going under, causing many families not to be able to make ends meet.  Poverty and homelessness became very widespread across the country, which led an overall feeling of hopelessness and despair.  This also led to many other factors that hurt many people including a physiological depression, not just a financial depression, and health issues like malnutrition and relying on the government to help afford doctor bills.  Black Thursday was the beginning of all of the problems caused by the market crash as well as the Great Depression.  The prosperity of the 1920’s created a false sense of security and the thought that the economy could only get better from there causing many people to invest in the stock market.  Therefore, the events of Black Thursday could not have been predicted and caused a chain reaction leading to one of the worst periods financially for American society.

Sources

Amadeo, K. (2021, January 27). The first day of the worst stock market crash in U.S. history. The Balance. Retrieved April 25, 2023, from https://www.thebalancemoney.com/black-thursday-1929-what-happened-and-what-caused-it-3305817

Pells, R. H., & Romer, C. D. (n.d.). Causes of the decline. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 25, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Depression/Causes-of-the-decline

Richardson, G. (n.d.). Stock market crash of 1929. Federal Reserve History. Retrieved April 25, 2023, from https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/stock-market-crash-of-1929

Fun Fact: The leftover wood from the production of the Ford Model T was recycled into charcoal, and sold as Ford Charcoal. When Ford stopped using wood for production, the charcoal branch became its own company, known today as Kingsford Charcoal.

The Ford Model T made a massive impact on the lives of Americans and how we move around in society. Prior to the Model T, personal transport that wasn’t a horse or bicycle was only for the very rich. If you wanted to go far, you took a train. Then the Model T became the most popular car in the United States, it also set the stage for the concept of the personal car to reshape our cities and towns. Prior to this, the roads were generally paved dirt or gravel, and had no clear direction or flow besides rails for streetcars or businesses that lined the streets. Streets, especially the main roads in towns, were social places, they were full of people milling about and conducting their lives. The people that worked in these cities and towns also lived very close to where they worked, since traveling daily long distances on horseback was not easy, and the only other option was a train, which would get expensive over time, or bicycle, which was not easy either on the unpaved surfaces. When the cars started to hit the roads en masse, the infrastructure around them had to change. Roads changed materials and got tougher, smoother, faster. Cars zipping through streets had to stay in dedicated lanes, people could not freely move across streets without the chance of getting run over. Another consequence of the popularity of the car was the rise of the suburbs. Since it was not substantially easier to cover longer distances without the need to follow a train schedule, people began to move farther away from their places of work, where they could have larger horses and properties compared to the apartments in the cities. This would evolve more and more over time to the structures we have now, large cities where people work then surrounding suburbs where they live, with highways to connect them. The Model T and its popularity was the catalyst for the advent of the personal car, and in the process, revolutionized how we go about our lives. 

The fifteen millionth Ford Model T is preserved today, part of The Henry Ford Museum collection and is currently displayed at the Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan. You can learn more about it here.

Sources:

“First and Fifteen Millionth Fords.” Detroit Free Press. May 27, 1927.

“The Model T and American Life.” The New Atlantis, no. 22 (2008): 115–115. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43152452.

Wells, Christopher W. “The Road to the Model T: Culture, Road Conditions, and Innovation at the Dawn of the American Motor Age.” Technology and Culture 48, no. 3 (2007): 497–523. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40061274.

gregk

Gregory Kruimer is currently enrolled in his senior year at Ramapo College as a History major.

Delta Airlines is one of the world’s largest airlines, with a rich history spanning over 90 years. Founded in 1924, Delta has grown from a crop-dusting operation to a global airline that serves more than 300 destinations in over 50 countries. This post will explore the history of Delta Airlines, from its early beginnings to its current status as a major player in the airline industry.

Early Years

Delta Airlines was founded in 1925 as Huff Daland Dusters, a crop-dusting company based in Macon, Georgia. The company’s founder, Collette E Woolman recognized the potential for commercial aviation and decided to expand the company’s operations to include delivery and passenger flights. 

Huff Daland, Delta, played a significant role during the 1920s and continues to play a vital role in commerce. During the 1920s crop dusting was part of the reason for the decline in crop prices advancing the great depression. Crop dusters allowed farmers to tend to larger land plots leading to increased production. The overproduction of food drove down food prices and during an economic depression the demand for food went down and everyone suffered. Looking forward to after the great depression, the practice of crop dusting is still in practice in 2023, to plant crops over a large spread of land and mass produce crops. The importance of crop dusting is cited by different papers during the 1920s. In 1925 Alabama newspaper, The Montgomery Advertiser, printed a story about failing cotton crops due to weevils and offered Huff Dusters as a solution to the problem, “foretelling of the greatest weevil emergence in history…State department of agriculture arrangements have been completed with the Huff Daland Dusters, Inc., to give a demonstration of airplane crop dusting.” The demonstration in Alabama proved to be successful. A few months later a Pennsylvania based newspaper, The Bristol Courier, published a story about Huff Daland’s agriculture contracts and tract record, “Airplanes of Huff Daland Dusters Inc., will protect 65,000 acres of cotton this year from insect pests.” The paper also talked about how Huff Daland Dusters are holding contracts in the south not only because of their ability to protect crops but also for their ability to bring manufacturing jobs to rural areas. “At the new airplane factory of the Huff Daland Company which is to be located in a portion of the merchant shipyard here, airplanes will be built to be used in dusting the Southern cotton fields.”

The success of Huff Daland Crop Dusting allowed the company to transition to commercial flights in addition to crop dusting. In 1928 The New York Times published an article titled, “Flying School Started Here”. The article is about Huff Daland hiring and training commercial pilots to operate the crop dusters while reassuring readers about the safety of aircrafts, “The Huff Daland Dusters, Inc., …have conducted dusting operations all over the south, in Mexico, and in Peru. Not a single fatality has occurred in any of their dusting operations, although this is considered one of the most hazardous types of flying.” The positive news coverage of Huff Daland Dusters gives the brand credibility as safe, professional, and efficient. Huff Daland soon changed its name to Delta airline and began doing passenger and cargo flights in addition to crop dusting. 

In 1928 Huff Daland  expanded into passenger flights from just crop dusting and changed its name to Delta air service. Delta was the first airline to allow passenger flights and they started with airports from Dallas Texas to Jackson Mississippi. The next year Delta expanded across the south to include services to Georgia and Delta air service changed its name to Delta Air Corporation. Starting in 1934 Delta began contracting work for the US Post office delivering mail via air from various post offices. Bringing mail via airplane significantly reduced the time it takes for people to receive mail and the cost to transport it long distance. In 1935 Delta began running night flights setting the current standard of nocturnal flights.

World War II (During and Post)

During World War II, Delta Air Lines was contracted by the U.S. military to provide air transport services. After the war, Delta resumed its commercial operations and continued to expand its route network. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the airline began flying to destinations in Europe and South America, cementing its status as a major international carrier.

Expansion and Innovation

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Delta Air Lines continued to expand its route network and modernize its fleet. In 1955, the airline introduced the first commercial jet service with the Douglas DC-8, which was faster and more efficient than the propeller-driven planes that had dominated the industry up to that point. Delta also introduced stewardesses in the Delta DC-8 and DC-9 jets. During the 1970s, Delta faced increasing competition from other airlines, including low-cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines. To remain competitive, the airline began to focus on providing high-quality service and amenities to its passengers, including upgraded seats and in-flight meals.

Mergers and Acquisitions

In the 1980s and 1990s, Delta Air Lines underwent a series of mergers and acquisitions that helped to cement its status as one of the world’s largest airlines. In 1984, the airline merged with Western Airlines, adding routes to the western United States and Hawaii.

In 2000, Delta merged with Korean Air, creating a strategic alliance that allowed the two airlines to share routes and resources. Continuing throughout the 200s, Delta Air Lines continued to expand its operations and modernize its fleet. The airline added new routes to Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, and began to focus on providing more personalized service to its passengers. Looking forward to 2012, Delta acquired a 49% stake in Virgin Atlantic Airways, giving the airline access to new routes and expanding its presence in Europe. Six years later in 2018 when climate change became a primary concern for businesses, Delta announced plans to purchase a total of 20 new Airbus A350 aircraft, which are more fuel-efficient, and have a lower carbon footprint than previous models and methods of air transportation.

Looking forward Delta airlines created a demand for more pilots which worked in both peace and war time. During World War 1 America started to build its air force then in a time of peace from 1919–1939 the United States invested in aviation and during World War 2 the USAAF peaked with approximately one million airplanes. The grand size of the United States Army Air Force can be attributed to companies such as Delta that managed to mass produce planes and pilots.   

Sources Used

     Downs, Eldon W., and George F. Lemmer. “Origins of Aerial Crop Dusting.” Agricultural History 39, no. 3 (1965): 123–35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3740251.

  Federico, Giovanni. “Not Guilty? Agriculture in the 1920s and the Great Depression.” The Journal of Economic History 65, no. 4 (2005): 949–76. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3874910

https://www.newspapers.com/image/413687705/?terms=Huff%20Daland&match=1

https://www.newspapers.com/image/82051137/?terms=Huff%20Daland&match=1

https://news.delta.com/deltas-history-dusting-crops-connecting-world

KC

Ramapo College senior majoring in history. My concentration is in the 1920s machine politics in major cities. In particular the unsustainability of the machine politic model.

The end of the 1920’s is infamously marked by The Wall Street Crash of 1929. The crash occurred for a number of reasons including but not limited to unregulated markets, individual debt, and faulty bank loans. The Crash caused hundreds of thousands of Americans to lose their life savings, but a few people benefited from the Crash. Albert Henry Wiggin, former president of Chase National Bank made millions using inside knowledge to buy and sell stocks in Chase National. While Wiggin cheated the market to make a fortune he was never held liable for his actions and led a fairly mundane life post crash. 

Early Life and Career

Albert Henry Wiggin was a Financier and majority shareholder of Chase national bank. Albert Henry Wiggin was born February 21, 1868 in Medfield Massachusetts. He graduated highschool in 1885 and immediately began a career in finance. His career started as a Boston bank clerk where he became involved with foreign affairs as he rose through the financial ranks. In 1904 Albert Henry Wiggin became the vice president of Chase bank and oversaw the bank’s expansion. Near the end of the 1910’s Albert Henry Wiggin oversaw the founding of Chase securities subsidiary. Albert Henry Wiggin also oversaw the merger of Chase with numerous financial institutions owned by Rockafeller. 

The Great Crash of 1929

Albert Henry Wiggin and his management of Chase bank played a significant role in the stock market crash of 1929. Chase like other banks would participate in speculative loans that either made a significant amount of money or lost a significant amount of money. Chase participated in these loans and Wiggin, having private access to the bank’s financials, was able to determine that all the risky investments are not paying off and it can assume people will rush to withdraw money. Having no restrictions on the types of loans banks can be involved with encourages bank owners to act recklessly because they can only profit while the economy suffers. Because of Albert Henry Wiggin and his board of directors taking risks and losing the bank’s money the FDIC was created to insure personal accounts up to 250k in case a bank fails.

Wiggin’s most infamous moment came in the aftermath of the Great Crash of 1929. As the stock market began to collapse, Wiggin sold a significant portion of his own holdings, including shares in Chase National Bank, for a profit of around $4 million. This move sparked outrage among the public and led to calls for reform of the financial system. Some accused Wiggin of insider trading and profiting from the collapse of the market, while others defended him, arguing that he had simply been making smart business decisions. The fallout from the Great Crash eventually led to the establishment of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), which was tasked with regulating the securities markets and preventing fraud and insider trading.

SEC Hearing

Albert Henry Wiggin had to provide a statement to the Senate Committee on Banking and Currency about his sell off of Chase bank stocks using insider knowledge. Albert Henry Wiggin provided his statement in November of 1933 where essentially admits to insider trading before it was a crime. The interview was short and established that Wiggin was aware of his power as a majority shareholder. The interviewer went on to use Wiggin’s decision to sell and accused Wiggin of notifying the board of directors to also sell based on private information. 

“Is it fair to assume that the reasons that prompted you and Mr. Dahl to sell these holdings of your B.M.T common stock is the knowledge that you had of the financial condition of the company, which knowledge you acquired as the chairman of the finance committee and the chairman of the Board, respectively?” 

Wiggn responds by indirectly admitting to insider trading “Yes, I had no inside information, except the knowledge that influenced my judgment was the maturity of notes, and everybody knew about it”. Albert Henry Wiggin tactic of short swing trading, selling company stock then rebuying it in a six month period because of exclusive knowledge, was legal but soon became illegal and coined as the “Wiggin loophole”. 

Later Life and Legacy

After the Great Crash, Wiggin remained at the helm of Chase National Bank until his retirement in 1933. He continued to be involved in a number of business ventures and philanthropic activities throughout his life, including the creation of the Albert H. Wiggin Foundation, which supports medical research and education. Despite his controversial legacy, Wiggin is remembered as a pioneer in the field of finance and banking. His leadership at Chase National Bank helped to shape the modern banking industry, and his involvement in the New York Stock Exchange laid the groundwork for the Exchange’s continued success.

Wigmore, Barrie A. “Revisiting the October 1987 Crash.” Financial Analysts Journal 54, no. 1 (1998): 36–48. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4480051.

Painter, William H. “Section 16(d) of the Securities Exchange Act: Legislative Compromise or Loophole?” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 113, no. 3 (1965): 358–80.

https://doi.org/10.2307/3310770.https://www.sutori.com/en/story/albert-henry-wiggins–fj5AfW9C33oH6zwZkAz2hUmq

Special to THE NEW YORK TIMES. “ALBERT H. WIGGIN, FINANCIER, 83, DIES: BANKER-DIPLOMAT, ONCE HEAD OF CHASE NATIONAL, PLAYED IMPORTANT WORLD ROLES STARTED CAREER AS A CLERK TESTIFIED BEFORE SENATE BODY.” New York Times (1923-), May 22, 1951. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/albert-h-wiggin-financier-83-dies/docview/112236216/se-2.

https://www.sutori.com/en/story/albert-henry-wiggins–fj5AfW9C33oH6zwZkAz2hUmq

KC

Ramapo College senior majoring in history. My concentration is in the 1920s machine politics in major cities. In particular the unsustainability of the machine politic model.

Charles Ponzi, born in Lugo Italy on March 3, 1882, was a native of Italy who led a life of crime. According to the Century Foundation, a think tank, while living back in Italy, he would frequently steal from his parents and parish priests. [1] Eventually, he immigrated to Canada for a period of time and then moved permanently to the United States (U.S.) where he gained his notoriety in 1920. Charles Ponzi’s last name, Ponzi, is associated with and named after one of the most famous and well-known financial scams all around the world. However, what do we know about Charles Ponzi and how did the Ponzi scheme originate? Well, in 1919, Ponzi discovered what he saw to be the most brilliant idea – he decided to buy certificates for postage stamps from the International Postal Union and then sell them in another market where the prices are significantly higher. Was he aware that it was likely not going to make investors a lot of money? Most definitely. However, he knew that he could take advantage of investors that were gullible and new to investment in general.

In addition, it has been reported that Ponzi never even purchased any postage certificates. He would simply use money from new investors to somewhat repay the initial investors, and of course, he would not forget to save some for himself. He was only focused on how much he could eventually grow his own money, and with that, he developed what is now known as the Ponzi Scheme. Britannica defines a Ponzi Scheme as a “fraudulent and illegal investment operation that promises quick, easy, and significant returns on investments with little or no risk.” [2] They continue to describe the Ponzi scheme in a structure that is now more commonly referred to as a pyramid scheme. “in which the operator, at the pyramid’s top, acquires a small group of investors that is initially provided with tremendous investment returns via funds secured from the second group of investors.” [3] In only eight months of twelve, in 1920, Charles Ponzi was able to “earn” about $15 million by convincing everyday individuals in finance that he could help them make even more money and that he knew the secret to true wealth. He was able to use his words to persuade his followers in trusting him with more and more money. He was worried that citizens of the public were beginning to catch onto him as he was not trying to hide his newfound wealth. According to the Century Foundation, he was living in a very large mansion. With time, he decided that hiring a public relations expert would be the best move. [4] However, it was the same public relations expert that tipped off the authorities to Ponzi’s fraud. Newspaper reporters also began to pick up on pieces of the scam as word was starting to float around among concerned investors that were getting tired of waiting on their investment. Eventually, it was the Boston Post that fully exposed Charles Ponzi and his scheme.

According to Britannica, Ponzi scammed and essentially stole millions of dollars from thousands of New England residents, primarily from 1919 through 1920 simply by creating a plan based on the sale of European postage stamps. He initially began with only focusing on a small group of investors, however, as word spread of this new investment opportunity with great promises, hundreds of investors began contacting Ponzi on their own accord to try and get a piece of the pie. His highest peak of the scam, in his eyes one of his biggest accomplishments, he raised $1 million in only three hours. [5] However, nine months later, his fraud was discovered. As investors awaited their promised higher investment, there was only $30 worth of stamps, for which Ponzi collected $15 million from individuals. After this was discovered by the investors, Ponzi was arrested in 1920 and faced heavy prison time after being charged with multiple counts of fraud and larceny. During his time in prison, he tried contacting as many investors as he could, apologizing for his “mistakes” and ensuring to them that he would make it up to them when he was released. It is doubtful that Ponzi actually regretted his actions, instead, he was trying to retain any relationships he possibly could with these investors so he could scam them once again. The United States Immigration Authorities did not want to give him a second chance however and instead deported him back to Italy. Ironically, back in Italy, he served as a treasury official for Mussolini’s fascist movement until his reputation was discovered. He tried to salvage what he could of his reputation and fled to Brazil until he lost his job and subsequently, all of his money. [6] in an article for the Wall Street Journal, titled, “The Original Ponzi Schemer,” the author discusses the psychology and thought process behind Charles Ponzi, describing his actions as a result of “status anxiety,” and wanting to both be and live among the wealthy. [7]

Charles Ponzi was the most prominent criminal that followed through with this scam, thus it is named after him. However, according to The Times, the scheme that is known as the Ponzi scheme did not only begin with Charles Ponzi. It first surfaced in 1879 by Sarah Howe in Boston after she created what was known as the “Ladies Deposit” to provide a space for women to make investments. Similar to Charles Ponzi, she promised the women she worked with that they would receive a much higher return on investment, insisting that their initial investment would double in under a year, but that never materialized. As word of her promises spread throughout Boston, the reporters for the Boston Daily Advertiser began following the numbers and ended up revealing her scam. According to The Times, she did eventually get caught and proven guilty, receiving three years in prison. However, she clearly did not learn her lesson because as soon as she got out, she carried out a nearly identical scam for another two years before she got caught and punished once again.

Modern-Day Ponzi Schemes

Even though there is a lot of information regarding Ponzi Schemes and signs to look out for that have been published both in books and online, Ponzi Schemes still continue to happen in modern times. In 1997, numerous Ponzi Schemes which took place in Albania collapsed, sparking nationwide rioting and rebellion, which eventually developed into a major crisis. [8] The most relevant and largest Ponzi Scheme to date was run by Bernard Larence “Bernie” Madoff, born April 29, 1938, in Queens, New York, who defrauded thousands of investors out of more than hundreds of billions of dollars for nearly twenty years. When investors chose to invest in his Ponzi Scheme, they felt that they could trust him due to his seemingly respectable reputation and experience in working for NASDAQ, an American financial corporation and stock exchange, in the 1990s. Another reason many investors were inclined to trust him due to his insistence that he used a method that was legitimate. He held the majority of his client’s funds in bank accounts and would fund or repay investors that were wanting to “cash out” with funds from other investors, similar to Ponzi. However, it was not until 2008, when the market crashed, that he could no longer keep up. With that, he decided to confide in his sons regarding the scam he had been running, and they notified authorities. The last recorded amount being held in the bank account was $64.8 billion in funds from his client’s around the time that he was caught. In 2009, Madoff actually pled guilty to his crimes and was charged with 11 federal felony counts, and received a sentence of 150 years in prison. [9]

With society continuing to move towards a more digital platform for all of our needs, it is important to be able to spot the signs of a potential Ponzi or pyramid scheme as they are only going to become more common due to the greater accessibility and reach they now have online. As seen in the case of Charles Ponzi, these scam artists will purposely try to play towards an individual’s anxiety and fear of missing out. They will try to be very picky as to who they will allow to contribute an investment towards their scam, which leads to other individuals, even those that may be suspicious of the ‘investment opportunity, to feel like they may miss out on a million-dollar opportunity. However, it seems that in the case of the Ponzi Schemes, history is repeating itself. It is imminent that there will still continue to be new Ponzi Schemes created and those that are still being kept under wraps will continue to be run. Charles Ponzi has left behind a legacy, and while not necessarily a positive one, it will forever impact the financial sector. Ponzi Schemes are still seen as “white-collar” crimes that tend to get a blind eye because they usually involve individuals of higher status and wealth, which is another aspect of the criminal justice system that could use some further reform.

Footnotes:
[1] The Century Foundation et al., “Who Was Charles Ponzi?,” The Century Foundation, March 7, 2016, https://tcf.org/content/commentary/who-was-charles-ponzi/?agreed=1.
[2]“Ponzi Scheme,” Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, inc.), https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ponzi-scheme#ref1111939.
[3] Ibid.
[4] The Century Foundation et al., “Who Was Charles Ponzi?”
[5] “Ponzi Scheme,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
[6] The Century Foundation et al., “Who Was Charles Ponzi?”
[7] Daniel Akst, “The Original Ponzi Schemer,” The Wall Street Journal (Dow Jones & Company, October 15, 2020), https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-original-ponzi-schemer-11602778470.
[8] “In Ponzi We Trust,” Smithsonian.com (Smithsonian Institution, December 1, 1998), https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/in-ponzi-we-trust-64016168/.
[9] Adam Hayes, “The Bernie Madoff Story,” Investopedia (Investopedia, April 22, 2021), https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bernard-madoff.asp.

Resources:

Akst, Daniel. “The Original Ponzi Schemer.” The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, October 15, 2020. https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-original-ponzi-schemer-11602778470.

The Century Foundation, Richard D. Kahlenberg, Ann O’Leary and Julie Kashen, Casey Berkovitz, Anna Bernstein, — By Rebecca Vallas, — By David Brady, — By Richard D. Kahlenberg, — By Amanda Novello, and — By Ann O’Leary and Julie Kashen. “Who Was Charles Ponzi?” The Century Foundation, March 7, 2016. https://tcf.org/content/commentary/who-was-charles-ponzi/?agreed=1.

Hayes, Adam. “The Bernie Madoff Story.” Investopedia. Investopedia, April 22, 2021. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bernard-madoff.asp.

“In Ponzi We Trust.” Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution, December 1, 1998. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/in-ponzi-we-trust-64016168/.

“Ponzi Scheme.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Accessed April 30, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ponzi-scheme#ref1111939.

Weisman, Steve. “The History of Ponzi Schemes Goes Deeper Than You Think.” Time. Time, August 12, 2020. https://time.com/5877434/first-ponzi-scheme/.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.