Florida’s sandy shores and sunny skies, aptly nicknamed the “Sunshine State” in the Southeastern United States, has attracted dreamers, vacationers, and fortune seekers for generations. With over 1,300 miles of coastline and a subtropical climate year-round, it is an extremely popular destination for not only vacations but for permanent residents as well. In the early 20th century, the charm of this tropical paradise was particularly powerful, fueling a land boom that transformed Miami from a sleepy beach town into a bustling city. The 1920s saw unprecedented economic growth and cultural transformation across America; Miami was no exception. However, this era of hopefulness came to a halt in September 1926 with the arrival of the Great Miami Hurricane, a giant storm that left a path of devastation.
Before the storm
Miami’s transformation into a major urban center was swift and dramatic. Incorporated in 1896, the city experienced exponential population growth. In the summer of 1913, Carl Fisher, an investor, and other investors hired the First Clark Dredging Company of Baltimore to clear away one thousand acres of swamp and replace it with bay bottomland, or flat land. The company employed African-American laborers for the brutal task of slashing through the mangroves. They then neatly covered the shore with some bay bottom, or sand pumped up from the ocean and soil from the Everglades area. After that, rapid industrialization was driven by factors such as Henry Flagler’s railroad expansion, connecting Florida and the Florida Keys with the rest of America, something that was unheard of at the time, along with aggressive land development campaigns. Between 1900 and 1910, Miami’s population more than doubled, reaching nearly 30,000 by 1920. A newspaper ad in 1921 named Miami Beach a paradise with “practically no danger from storms.” This perception, coupled with the absence of significant hurricanes since 1910, encouraged a false sense of security among investors and residents.
Construction boomed during this period, with large hotels, exquisite casinos, and beautiful beach houses springing up to accommodate the surge of tourists and new residents. Miami’s economy thrived on tourism, especially during the winter months, when visitors flocked to the warm weather. Real estate sales reached new heights, fueled by ambitious projects like the reclamation of the Everglades and the rapid expansion of road networks for automobiles, as well as investors purchasing land and properties in anticipation of future growth and profits. Additionally, agricultural activities, like farming, thrived in the surrounding areas, contributing to the region’s economic prosperity. The passage of a constitutional amendment in 1924, prohibiting state inheritance and income taxes, further fueled investor confidence and attracted capital to the region. The city saw the construction of roads, bridges, and other transportation networks to accommodate the growing number of residents and visitors. The city also invested in improving utilities like water supply, sewage systems, and electricity. However, these improvements did not reach all residents, particularly those in marginalized communities. In addition, beneath the prosperity were structural weaknesses and vulnerabilities. Many buildings were hastily constructed, lacking proper reinforcement to withstand the force of a major hurricane. Most of the natural plants and wildlife that would have done a bit to protect from the storm was destroyed in the rapid development. The city’s infrastructure, including drainage systems and flood defenses, was not equipped to cope with the powerful storm.
Miami’s population during the early 20th century was diverse, consisting of people from various backgrounds. The city attracted immigrants from Europe, Latin America, and the Caribbean, as well as African Americans migrating from other parts of the United States. This diversity contributed to Miami’s rich cultural vibe. Racial segregation and discrimination were prevalent, with African Americans and other minority groups facing limited opportunities and social exclusion. Additionally, the rapid pace of development and urbanization often led to environmental degradation as natural habitats were cleared for construction and infrastructure projects.
Overall, Miami before the Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 was a dynamic and rapidly evolving city, characterized by population growth, economic expansion, cultural diversity, and real estate speculation. While the city experienced unprecedented prosperity and development, it also grappled with social inequalities, environmental challenges, and the risks associated with rapid urbanization. These factors set the stage for the catastrophic impact of the hurricane and its aftermath on Miami and its residents.
Unknown Storm
Reports are conflicted as to whether Miami issued warnings. Some sources state that there were some warnings in the days leading up to the event, and residents of Miami disregarded the warnings, not understanding how catastrophic an event like this could be. Other sources say there were no warnings and that people were completely unaware that this was going to happen. During this time, storm warnings were centralized in Washington, D.C., and then distributed to other offices, like the weather office in Miami, so by the time they were aware of the event and sent out any type of warning, it would’ve been too late for citizens to be prepared. If there were warnings, they probably would’ve been sent out when residents were already asleep. A smaller hurricane earlier in July had served as a wake-up call for some, prompting a degree of preparation in the days leading up to the storm if they were warned. However, these efforts were insufficient to lessen the catastrophic impact of the impending hurricane. As the category four hurricane brewed in the Atlantic, the rudimentary forecasting technology of the time struggled to accurately predict the storm’s trajectory, leading many to underestimate the potential threat. The storm’s path avoided the normal channels of Caribbean information, so the hurricane was somewhat mysterious, with only a few ships reporting its existence.
The Hurricane comes in
In the early hours of September 18th, 1926, the full force of the Great Miami Hurricane was unleashed upon the city. With winds exceeding 150 miles per hour and a storm surge towering 11 feet above high tide, the hurricane attacked Miami, leaving a trail of destruction in its wake. From South Beach to Lake Okeechobee and beyond to the Tampa Bay area and the northern Gulf Coast, no area of South Florida was spared from the storm. As the hurricane approached, the “eye” of the storm passed directly over Miami, bringing a temporary lull in the winds and rain. Many residents, unaware that the most dangerous part of the storm was yet to come, ventured outside during this brief period of calm. Many of these residents lost their lives. After the eye passed, the hurricane’s second half brought renewed fury to Miami and the surrounding areas. Powerful winds, heavy rain, and flooding caused widespread devastation, destroying buildings, homes, and infrastructure. The hurricane’s strong winds tore roofs off buildings, uprooted trees, and toppled power lines and utility poles. Debris became airborne, causing additional damage to structures and posing a significant danger to residents. The Great Miami Hurricane resulted in significant loss of life, with an official death toll reported at 372 people. However, some estimates suggest that the actual number of casualties may have been much higher, possibly reaching into the thousands. Along with that, there were 854 hospitalized. 2,000 homes were destroyed, and 3,000 more were damaged. Estimates of residents made homeless ranged from 25,000 to 47,000. Newspapers had headlines reading “Still Adding to List of Dead in Hurricane’s Wake” and highlighted how the number of deaths increased as bodies washed ashore afterwards. The lack of preparedness and the rapid escalation of the hurricane caught both residents and weather officials off guard, worsening the loss of life and property.
The Aftermath
In the days and weeks following the hurricane, relief and recovery efforts were launched to assist those affected by the disaster. People who promoted real estate in Miami didn’t like the publicity surrounding the disaster because it negatively impacted their businesses and the real estate industry. The Red Cross workers who were trying to come into help were initially hindered by these promoters, but donations started coming in, and they were able to start relief efforts. The hurricane left thousands of people homeless, injured, or displaced. Emergency shelters were set up to provide temporary housing and assistance to survivors. Relief agencies and volunteers worked tirelessly to provide food, water, medical care, and other essential supplies to those in need.
Rebuilding efforts began almost immediately after the hurricane, as residents and authorities worked to repair and reconstruct damaged homes, buildings, and infrastructure. Miami was able to rebuild structurally in a few months, but financially, it would take years. Cleanup crews worked to clear debris and restore essential services. Entire neighborhoods were flattened, and debris littered the streets. Power lines were downed, water supplies were contaminated, and communication networks were severed. Businesses were destroyed, crops were ruined, and livelihoods were lost.
In addition to the physical destruction, the hurricane showed the racial and socioeconomic disparities that were in Miami. African American neighborhoods got hit the hardest in the storm’s impact yet received disproportionately less assistance and were some of the last people to receive aid in the aftermath. They were also expected to clean up the damage caused by the storm.
A Changed Landscape
The Great Miami Hurricane served as a wake-up call, exposing the vulnerabilities of a city built on rapid growth. After the disaster, efforts were made to strengthen building codes and improve disaster preparedness measures. Stricter regulations were put in place to ensure that buildings were better able to withstand the force of future hurricanes. This included requirements for reinforced structures, impact-resistant materials, and storm-resistant designs. The destruction caused by the hurricane prompted significant investments in infrastructure improvements. Roads, bridges, and utilities were rebuilt and reinforced to better withstand future storms. Drainage systems were also upgraded to reduce the risk of flooding during hurricanes and heavy rainfall events. The hurricane highlighted the importance of emergency preparedness and response in coastal communities. In the years following the disaster, Miami implemented comprehensive emergency management plans and established dedicated agencies and resources for disaster response and recovery. This included the development of evacuation routes, emergency shelters, and communication systems to better coordinate response efforts during hurricanes and other emergencies. The Great Miami Hurricane influenced urban planning and development policies in Miami. There was a greater emphasis on sustainable growth and resilient design principles to minimize the risk of damage from future storms. This included measures such as preserving green spaces, protecting natural habitats, and implementing smart growth strategies to reduce vulnerability to hurricanes and other environmental hazards. Even today, agencies like the U.S Army Corps of Engineers (ACE) are working to improve the Miami area’s storm surge defenses, including more infrastructure projects and financial assistance for floodproofing in homes and businesses.
However, the economic devastation from the hurricane was extreme, triggering a downturn in the region’s fortunes. The storm’s impact reached far beyond the borders of Miami, foreshadowing the economic turmoil and social upheaval that would characterize the Great Depression. Florida, already shaken up from the hurricane’s devastation, was ill-prepared for the subsequent economic downturn, which further worsened the suffering of its residents. In the next year, 1927, tourism was down and land buyers were defaulting on their payments. There was a small resurgence of tourism in land sales in 1928 and 1929, but it was short-lived because of the stock market crash in October of 1929.
Conclusion
The Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 stands as a defining moment in the history of Miami and South Florida. The storm’s devastating impact showed the vulnerabilities of a city built on rapid expansion and development. Yet, from the disaster emerged a stronger, more resilient community, determined to rebuild and thrive in the face of adversity. The lessons learned from the hurricane continue to shape Miami’s approach to disaster preparedness and urban development, ensuring that the city remains better equipped to withstand future storms. Even today, this storm and others influence choices made to make Miami and South Florida more safe for residents and vacationers alike. Ultimately, the story of the Great Miami Hurricane is one of resilience, adaptation, and the enduring human spirit in the face of nature’s wrath.
If you are interested in this subject, here are some suggestions for further exploration.
The Great Miami Hurricane– The History Guy. This YouTube video talks about some other things going on at this time, as well as going more in-depth on the subject.
Harry and the Hurricane- Gordon Berg. A fun book (targeted for younger readers but could be enjoyed by anyone!) that describes a seven year old’s experience during the hurricane, and is based on the author’s dad.
Citations:
“Devastation in Miami from the 1926 Hurricane.” n.d. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. https://www.loc.gov/item/2021670726/.
Dumenil, Lynn. 1995. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill And Wang.
New Smyrna Daily News. 1926. “1926 Great Miami Hurricane. Miami, Fl. Headline Article – Tom Malmay,” September 21, 1926. https://www.newspapers.com/article/new-smyrna-daily-news-1926-great-miami-h/2385338/.
Steinberg, Theodore. 1997. “Do-It-Yourself Deathscape: The Unnatural History of Natural Disaster in South Florida.” Environmental History 2 (4): 414. https://doi.org/10.2307/3985607.
“The Hurricane of 1926 | American Experience | PBS.” n.d. Www.pbs.org. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/miami-hurricane-1926/.
US Department of Commerce, NOAA. n.d. “Great Miami Hurricane of 1926.” Www.weather.gov. https://www.weather.gov/mfl/miami_hurricane.
———. n.d. “NWS WFO/NHC Miami, FL History Page.” Www.weather.gov. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.weather.gov/mfl/floridahistorypage#Richard_Gray.
Jones, Marian Moser. “Tempest in the Forbidden City: Racism, Violence, and Vulnerability in the 1926 Miami Hurricane.” Journal of Policy History 26, no. 3 (June 9, 2014): 384–405. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0898030614000177.
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- https://www.mdpls.org/dc-blog-twentytwo-july ↩︎
