The Museum was the idea of three women: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, Lillie P. Bliss, and Mary Quinn Sullivan, who were known as “The Ladies”. These women were daughters and wives of some of America’s famous and powerful families. They had a passion for the arts and were avid art collectors. The idea of the Museum began in 1928, when The Ladies gathered together over lunch to come up with a museum that could house contemporary art.¹ The Ladies pooled their incomes and also raised money from wealthy businessmen to open the Museum. The Ladies invited Alfred H. Barr, Jr to be the Museum’s first director and appointed Anson Conger Goodyear, Paul Sachs, Frank Crowninshield, and Josephine Boardman Crane as board of trustees when the Museum opened on November 7, 1929.²

Perspectives about to role of women changed during the 1920s. As women became more economically independent, they would forego the traditional gender norms and dressed differently from prior generations. One Historian, Lynn Dumenil, called this change the change of the “New Woman”.³ Though all three of the founders would fall under the same notion of the New Woman, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller best encapsulated the New Woman and expanded upon it. Abby Aldrich Rockefeller was the Museum’s Treasurer, and over the years gained other job titles like First Vice President, and First Vice Chairman. These positions were typically not given to women during this era. She also advocated for women’s rights. She gave money to the Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) and served as chairwomen of the organization for 20 years.⁴ The organization aimed to help advance all women and offer them economic protection. Her appearance also challenged social norms. She wore her hair short, similar to a man’s hair, and Flappers.

The Museum helped reinforce the modernity of the 1920s. Due to the increase of educated people, culture began to flourish all over the country. Historian Lynn Dumenil believed that American modernity began when the European idea to challenge old Victorian ideals also began to spread in America.⁵ The Museum’s original exhibit were of three European painters: Vincent van Gogh, Georges Seurat and Paul Gauguin. These painter’s works were often considered to have pushed and challenged the norms of the Art World. People in the 1920’s also tried seeking guidance for their problems from the secular world.⁶ Museums like the Museum of Modern Art housed collections of secular art that could bring this comfort, or caused people to changed their perspective on things. During American Modernity, states in the North tried celebrating pluralism and embracing other people’s cultures.⁷ The Museum did it best by embracing pluralism. In 1930, the Museum of Modern Art hired a famous Japanese-American photographer named Soichi Sunami who stayed there for almost 40 years .⁸ Though Soichi was hired in the 30’s, his being hired and work being appreciated was due to the ideas of modernity and pluralism from the 20’s.

The Museum of Modern Art was shaped by the culture of American during the 1920’s. The Museum challenged the traditional role of women, since the Museum’s founders were all women and the huge role they played after its founding. The Museum embraced the ideas of American Modernity, by embracing foreign cultures and being a place of secular enjoyment of art. Thus, the Museum of Modern Art both challenged and embraced the norms of the 1920s.

1. “MoMA Through Time,” MoMA, The Museum of Modern Art, accessed on March 31, 2026. ︎
2. “The Museum of Modern Art History,” MoMA, The Museum of Modern Arts, accessed on March 30, 2026. ︎
3. Lynn Dumenil. Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 99. ︎
4. “Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, 1874-1948,” Rockefeller Archive Center, accessed on March 31, 2026. ︎
5. Dumenil. Modern Temper,146. ︎
6. Dumenil. Modern Temper, 151. ︎
7. Dumenil. Modern Temper, 149. ︎
8. “Soichi Sunami,” Getty, The Getty Museum, accessed on March 31, 2026. ︎

Bibliography

“Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, 1874-1948.” Rockefeller Archive Center. accessed on March 31, 2026.

Dumenil, Lynn. Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. (New York: Hill and Wang. 1995).

MoMA Through Time.” MoMA. The Museum of Modern Art. accessed on March 31.

“Soichi Sunami.” Getty. The Getty Museum. accessed on March 31, 2026.

“The Museum of Modern Art History.” MoMA. The Museum of Modern Arts. accessed on March 30, 2026.

J Pelar

Josh Pelar is a History student at Ramapo College of New Jersey.

Some of these occupations included opportunities within botany, mathematics, architecture, blacksmithing, cinema operators, miners, artists and so on. With about 280 booths in attendance, over 100 occupations, career paths and opportunities were displayed. These events also intended to raise money for the Women’s Republican Party, several members of the organizing committee were a part of this organization.

The first fair was held from April 18th to the 25th, 1925, however there were years of preparation needed in order to organize such an event, and there are even newspaper clippings from as early as 1923 publishing the fair. Initially the fair was only intended to run for one year however, within the first years’ operation there were close to 160,000-200,000 visitors. The overwhelming number of visitors even caused the fair to expand into surrounding buildings just to adhere to the population. Due to the popularity, the fair then began to run annually until 1928 (see timeline for more specific dates), and  by that time several other foreign countries had joined in the fair’s events. Some of which included Greece, Great Britain and Germany. 

As a whole the fair intended to help women transition from their traditional positions in society, into their new ones. Within previous decades the ‘traditional’ role of women was held within the domestic, they were intended to keep the home clean, cook, tend to children, and any other responsibilities needed. If they were able to work it’s likely that their occupation still fell within the domestic sphere with jobs such as housekeeping often being readily available. However, as the years progressed women began to establish their place within the public sphere and therefore within the rest of typical society. Their jobs began to hold more public positions, which included jobs such as secretaries and salesclerks. However many women were limited in their knowledge of what was available to them, and resulted in many women working within the same jobs. The fair intended to expand women’s horizons and possibilities in their progressive era.

Who organized the fair?

With each fair came endless amounts of boards and committees created in order to ensure a successful and impactful fair. However two women credited with much of the fairs’ success are Helen Marie Bennett and Ruth McCormick.

Helen Marie Bennett: Born September 17th, 1972 in Washington, Iowa, Bennett was an American journalist and businesswoman, she worked for the Chicago Record and authored several books including ‘Women and Work.’ She also served as manager of the Chicago Bureau of Occupations, which essentially where college-educated women went to seek employment, the bureau acted as a sort of guide for these women. Despite all this Bennett is most known for being a part of the committee that organized all four woman’s fairs.  

Ruth McCormick: Born March 27th, 1880 in Cleveland Ohio, McCormick went on to become a very successful politician, activist, and publisher. Despite her familial wealth McCormick chose to live within the University of Chicago Settlement, which introduced her to working women and exposed her to the issues they faced. This in turn made McCormick a better writer and publicist at the Chicago Tribune, which she worked at very early in her career..  She was also a member of the Welfare Committee, the Women’s City Club of Chicago, she served as a chairwoman for the women’s welfare section of the National Civil Federation, and was an incredibly active member of the Progressive Party, she even went on to win a seat within the party in 1912. Her husband served one term in the US House of Representatives, and was Senate to Illinois in 1918, very often McCormick is credited with her husband’s political success and she eventually served as chairman to the women’s first Republic National Committee. However after the death of her husband in 1925 McCormick dedicated herself to the Woman’s Fairs. Where she went on to serve as a general executive and as a member on the Board of Directors. Even after the death of her husband McCormick was still incredibly active in politics, going on to become the Republican representative for Illinois from 1929-1931. 

The Influences of the Woman’s World’s Fair

The Fair was the result of a multitude of ever-developing factors within the late 19th and early 20th century. These factors and events challenged the traditional gender norms set within society and led to women gaining more freedom within society and their everyday lives. 

The 1893 World’s Fair

The 1893 World’s Fair, which is also referred to as the Columbian Exposition, was the first ever world’s fair held in Chicago. The Fair was meant to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus’ arrival in the new world. The centerpiece of such a celebration was over 600 acres of land from the Frederick Law Olmsted Jackson Park were carved out and rebuilt specifically for this exposition. The fair grounds, which would later be referred to as The White City, aimed to demonstrate an ideal and almost euphoric United States. The city was specifically designed and covered in a white plaster, therefore giving it the nickname of White City, all of the buildings were also a specific height in order to give a more uniformed look, and at the center of the entire fair was a large water pool, meant to be representative of the voyage Columbus took. Due to the time and care put into the architectural aspects of the fair, it now serves as a great influence to Chicago architects. Over the six month residency the fair sought to host millions of visitors, from all walks of life, and from all over the world, over 46 nations participated in this fair. As a whole this fair served as an exposition for innovations in architecture, engineering, transportation, weaponry, art, and so much more. This specific fair also greatly impacted the American’s perception of beauty, since it exposed Americans to new cultural aspects from other countries.

 Overall the fair greatly impacted American culture, economics and even politics, it was meant to demonstrate the United States as being wealthy and progressive, however the fair truly exposed several flaws within American society. 

Every aspect of the 1893 World’s Fair was specifically designed, which is demonstrated within the very architecture of the fair. It would therefore make sense that the fair was also specifically designed to exclude those typically oppressed within this society, including women.  Although there was a Women’s Building within the fair’s design, it was on the very outskirts of the fair’s main buildings, and only a fraction of the size. Aside from this building there was a clear lack of representation of Women within the fair. Due to this many thought that a fair specifically tailored for and representing women was greatly needed, this idea then snowballed into what is now known as the Woman’s World’s Fairs. 

The Women’s Suffrage and Rights Movement 

The Women’s Suffrage movement stemmed from the women’s rights movements within the mid-19th century. At first these movements demonstrated several different goals, however despite this several leaders within the movement decided that gaining the right to vote would be most important. It would open doors to several other opportunities women were seeking within society, however disputes over how to gain the vote caused many divisions. Although historians tend to paint the women’s suffrage movement as being a part of the very early 20th century, the first recorded attempt at a national movement began in Seneca Falls, New York in July of 1848. After several other movements, demonstrations, and petitions, the division over how women would gain the right to vote eventually split the movement into two groups, the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). Around the 1890s the two groups realized their division only impeded on progress and the two combined to great the National American Women Suffrage Association (NAWSA), Thirty years after the groups united an incredible stride in the movement was made when Jeannette Rankin was elected to Congress as the Republican Representative of Montana. Rankin was an active member in the suffrage and rights movements, and used her platform to support the movement, her support was quickly felt in 1917 when she testified to Congress on the movements in order to keep it on the agenda. Soon a Committee on Women’s Suffrage was created in order to consider bills related to women’s voting rights. After two years of hearings, lobbying, and meetings Congress finally passed a bill on women’s voting rights July 7th 1919, and just over a year later the bill was officially adopted into the Constitution. 

Although this was an incredible achievement for the women’s suffrage movement, it still excluded a great deal of American citizens. Specifically African American men and women, it would be almost 40 years before their rights were granted. All in all the exclusion of this population of Americans demonstrated the country’s failed Reconstruction movement. 

This movement greatly influenced the development of the Women’s World’s Fairs, many members of the organizing committee, including Ruth McCormick, were at the forefront of the Suffrage and Rights movements. The results of these movements, including the right to vote, opened the door to many women and gave them access to the public sphere. However, even though many women were now able to be within the public sphere, they were still greatly limited in what they could do occupationally speaking. The fair was greatly needed in order to demonstrate to women what opportunities were available to them within this new public sphere. 

The New Woman 

Although the late 1800s and early 1900s demonstrate great times of progression for women’s equality, there is no surprise that older generations often pushed back against these ideas. Often the new and progressive women within society were referred to as the ‘New Woman,’ and as positive as it sounds it was typically meant as a sort of insult. The ‘New Woman’ typically referred to the younger generation of women, who demonstrated feminist ideals and who are now cultural icons. These women, often referred to as ‘flappers’ were actually just working class women. They were women who worked, were financially independent, voted, and spent their nights out on the town, however most importantly they were women who spent money free from male influence. So it’s no surprise that these new women were typically welcomed in urban environments such as Chicago. 

The Romanticization of the New Woman 

Often when eras of great progression, such as the women’s suffrage and rights movements, get romanticized, and many of the negative aspects are glossed over. First off, the jobs that became readily available for women were smaller-scale jobs men took on to start their climb within their careers, like salesclerks or secretaries. These jobs were then feminized and seen as lesser, therefore they were only paid about 42-63% of what men would make in that exact position. This pay gap was even greater for women of minority groups. Many women also worked within the same positions, and although the Women’s World Fair presented many opportunities, they were mainly directed toward white educated women. 

The Working Woman in the Media

Another interesting notion to keep in mind is the role that the media has played in encouraging the development of the New Women and of women within the public sphere. Of course the economy is going to encourage women to work, since in the end it meant they would receive more money. Between the 1900s and 1930s representation of the working women increased dramatically. At first women were presented as doing very simple jobs within offices and stores, but more importantly it was presented that the workplace was an environment in which women would be able to meet their husbands. As the years went on, and working women in media became a natural sight, the media began reflecting the realities of working women’s lives. Representing the mundane, repetitiveness of their lives.

Overall the development of the working women, the new women, and of flappers came as a direct result of the 19th amendment and directly influenced the women’s world’s fair. Although women began to enter the public sphere they were still very limited in what they could do, the fair acted as a networking agent for them. And although these were great times of progression it is extremely important to understand how romanticized this era is and how many negative details are simply glossed over. 

Conclusion

As a whole the Woman’s World’s Fair stood as a testament to the progressive nature of the early 20th century. The event, created by women and for women, provided them with access to the opportunities available to them. Achievements within several different fields were proudly displayed and hundreds of booths demonstrated new career paths women of the era could take up. The creation of this fair was the direct result of a multitude of events, including the limited representation in the1893 Columbian Exposition, the strides made within the Suffrage and Woman’s Rights movements, and the active development of what is now known as the ‘New Woman.’ Typically this era of history is presented as being extremely progressive, and the events of the World’s Fairs (both the Columbian and the Woman’s) only further emphasized this idea since they were intended to demonstrate progression in a culture, engineering, and many other topics. However it is important to keep in mind the large population of Americas that were outright discriminated against during these fairs. It’s also important to note that even women who were able to be a part of the public sphere through these job opportunities were still discriminated against and even sexualized in some aspects. Ripples of these misogynist, and racist ideas are demonstrated in the decades after the fairs, and aspects of such are even felt within modern day society. With any event in history it’s important to understand not only the context of the event, but the multifaceted sides of the event as well. By understanding this one can truly grasp the importance and influence that major events, such as the Woman’s World’s Fair, had on society and how it affects modern society. 

Timeline:

Citations:

““The New Woman” | US History II (American Yawp).” Courses.lumenlearning.com, courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ushistory2ay/chapter/the-new-woman-2/.

“Chicago Architecture Center.” Chicago Architecture Center, 2024, www.architecture.org/online-resources/architecture-encyclopedia/worlds-columbian-exposition-of-1893.

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Hill And Wang, 1995.

Estherwang. “The 1925 Woman’s World’s Fair in Chicago – Chicago History Museum.” Chicago History Museum, 22 Apr. 2025, www.chicagohistory.org/the-1925-womans-worlds-fair-in-chicago/. Accessed 18 Mar. 2026.

Ganz, Cheryl. The 1933 Chicago World’s Fair : A Century of Progress. Urbana, Univ. Of Illinois Press, 2012.

   Grossman, Ron. “Chicago’s Society Women Threw a World’s Fair of Their Own in the 1920s to Showcase Female Talent.” Chicago Tribune, March 11, 2024. https://www.chicagotribune.com/2024/03/03/womens-world-fair-chicago/

  Miller, Taylor Jade. “New Women, New Opportunities: The New Women of Chicago’s World’s Fairs, 1893-1934,” 2018

“MCCORMICK, Ruth Hanna | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives.” History.house.gov, history.house.gov/People/Detail/17791.

Patrick, Jeanette. “Ruth Hanna McCormick.” National Women’s History Museum, 2016, www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/ruth-hanna-mccormick-simms.

 Scott. “Woman’s Part at the World’s Fair, Part I.” Chicago’s 1893 Worlds Fair, April 2, 2024. https://worldsfairchicago1893.com/2019/03/01/womans-part-at-the-worlds fair-part-1/. 

“The House Supports Women’s Suffrage, 1917–1919 | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives.” History.house.gov, history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/WIC/Historical-Essays/No-Lady/House-Supports-Suffrage/.

“The World’s Columbian Exposition: The White City and Fairgrounds – Smarthistory.” Smarthistory.org, smarthistory.org/white-city-and-fairgrounds/.

Tracey Jean Boisseau, and Abigail M Markwyn. Gendering the Fair : Histories of Women and Gender at World’s Fairs. Urbana, University Of Illinois Press, 2010.

Weimann, Jeanne Madeline. The Fair Women: The Story of the Woman’s Building World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago 1983. Chicago, IL: Chicago, III : Academy Chicago, 1981. 

“Woman’s World’s Fair, 1925.” Chicagohistory.org, 2026, encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1374.html. Accessed 18 Mar. 2026.

Suggested Resources:

The Chicago History Museum

The Chicago Digital Collections

The Chicago Architecture Center

The Chicago Tribune

madison

Madison is currently a senior at the Ramapo College of New Jersey, who took this course in the spring of 2026. She has a major in Visual Arts, with a concentration in Art History, along with a double minor in Anthropology and Museum and Exhibitions Studies. After graduating Madison hopes to continue her education in order to become an Archaeologist or Museum Educator.

Atlantic City & 1920s Tourism

Atlantic City, one of New Jersey’s most famous coastal vacation spots, was established in 1854 when a track was created from Camden, NJ, crossing the Delaware River from Philadelphia to the shore. This resulted in a major increase in tourism. As tourism boomed, a town was built behind the beach and wooden hotels began to line up the area. This increase of tourism left many to see profitable business.

Atlantic City developed the reputation of being both a restful vacation destination and a lively spot for amusements. The city’s signature rolling chairs started off as mere wheelchairs for visitors to use from hotel to hotel. It gradually evolved into a rental business as others joined in. By 1892, rolling chairs had become a popular trend, and by the 1920s, they were widely used. The city officially became a place where middle class people could pretend to be rich, with show business attractions becoming their popular source of entertainment.² Business leaders began to build luxurious spots for middle class tourists, and by the 1920s, the middle class had come to dominate the new consumer culture. This new middle class, typically men, sought personal satisfaction in leisure and consumption.³ It was this very class that motivated local businessmen to create one of America’s most famous pageants, the “Miss America” pageant.

The Very First Miss America Pageant in 1921

The 1920s marked a decade when businessmen sought to rise into a more idealized position. Even small businessmen made an effort to present themselves as dedicated to civic life.⁴ In fact, it was local small businessmen who created the pageant. The “Miss America Pageant” owes its existence to a man named Conrad Eckholm, owner of a hotel named the Monticello. He proposed to have the Atlantic City Business Men’s League sponsor a week-long event that extended the Labor Day weekend. This proposal’s goal was to benefit smaller side hotels that were not on the boardwalk, including his own. They donated around $5,916 towards this event and named it the “Fall Frolic of 1920.”.⁵ It would not yet feature the beauty pageant until the following year. Instead, they hosted an hour-long “Rolling Chair Parade”. After the 1920 event, an Atlantic City newspaperman, Harry Finely, suggested a beauty contest to be added to the next Fall Frolic. When gathered in a meeting with the city’s managers, he proposed that newspapers throughout many cities should run the contest. This contest would choose the “most popular young woman” in their respective city. To create a more “appropriate” way to host a beauty contest for the middle class, newspapers helped by having people send in photos of contestants instead of letting contestants sign up themselves. Liking the idea, the President of the Chamber Commerce, Sam P. Leeds, presented Finley’s proposal to the Hotelsman Association. They agreed to have these women compete against other Inter-City contestants at the Frolic. Many East Coast newspapers ran this popularity contest, calling it the “Inter-City Beauties” contest. Cities like Pittsburgh, Washington D.C., Baltimore, Philadelphia, Jersey City, and Newark held summer events where women were judged on their beauty and impression. The winners from each city would then win a free trip to Atlantic City to attend the Fall Frolic. On July 24, 1921, The Washington Post announced the winners of their contest, with the first prize winner being sixteen year old Margaret Gorman.⁶ On September 2, 1921, the Camden Daily Courier announced Kathryne Gearson as the winner to represent South Jersey. She would later be given the title “Miss Camden” for the pageant.⁷ Other cities chose their own winners. The women to be sent to Atlantic City were Miss Philadelphia, Nellie Orr, Miss Ocean City, Hazel Harris, Miss Pittsburgh, Thelma Matthews, and Miss Harrisburg, Emma Pharo.

The official pageant began on September 7th, 1921. Hudson Maxim, popularly known as the inventor of smokeless powder, played a character named “King Neptune”. He arrived with a group of “mermaids”, the Inter-City contest winners. They all arrived at the Million Dollar Pier for the opening ceremony. King Neptune and the Inter-City women paraded on a seashell float on the boardwalk. The women later visited the Keith’s Theatre, where a crowd and a panel of judges examined and questioned them. The audience’s favorite was Washington D.C’s, Margaret Gorman, earning her the first trophy. In the evening, Neptune and the women watched a performance by “Dawson’s Dancing Dolls”. The public watched the show with the contestants in full view. At the end of the first day, Neptune and the women attended a costumed ballroom event called “The Frolique”. They sat on a throne display, watching the event take place.⁹

The next day of the pageant featured the Bathers’ Revue, a series of bathing suit contests. All participants and visitors were required to wear one-piece bathing suits. Around one thousand people showed up to watch the Rolling Chair Parade and beauty contests. The Bathers Revue beauty pageant had two sub-categories: “Amateur” and “Professional”.¹⁰ The professional category included professional actresses, dancers, models and swimmers. Across four contests, women competed for the titles of “Most Beautiful” and “Most Beautiful Bathing Beauty.” The overall winner would receive the ultimate prize, the “Golden Mermaid Trophy”, and be crowned the first “Miss America”. Miss Washington, Margaret Gorman, won both the Inter-City Beauty Amateur title and first place in the Inter-City Bather’s Revue, while Miss Philadelphia, Nellie Orr, came in second.

List of Finalists:

Gorman, Saunders, and Salisbury competed against each other for the ultimate title of “Most Beautiful Bathing Girl in America.” A panel of judges and the audience chose the winner. Since the audience favored Gorman the most, she won the “Golden Mermaid Trophy,” earning her title as the very first “Miss America.”. After her victory, reporters and photographers surrounded her as she attended parties held in her honor. The pageant became a huge success, motivating its organizers to host it again the following years.

The 1920s Pageants, Controversies, & the Women’s-Religious Protests

The pageant was so successful that the number of days, activities, attendees, and contestants increased each year. The number of contestants grew from just eight to eighty-three by 1924.¹³ In addition, new rules were added. In the early years, a winning Miss America could reenter the pageant in order to fight for her right to maintain her status. However, after Ruth Malcomson, Miss America 1924, criticized the fairness of allowing professional women to compete, new rules were introduced prohibiting any past winner from reentering. Another rule added was that married women could not become contestants in the pageant. The pageant never explicitly enforced this rule, assuming that this was something the public knew to follow. However, after the discovery of a married contestant, the rule was explicitly put in place. Another change was the audience’s power. Gorman won her place as Miss America with the overwhelming support of the audience. This changed in 1922 when the audience’s votes were eliminated. This granted judges the sole decision of crowning the winner. In addition, a new category, the “evening gown” competition, was introduced to the pageant. By 1923, the pageant gained national recognition, and newspapers all over the country covered its events. Not only did the pageant become more popular, its winners did as well. Mary Campbell, Miss America 1922 and 23, received offers to be in films, musicals, and vaudeville shows. However, she refused these offers to return to school. Miss America 1925, Fay Lanphier, was the first to be in a Hollywood movie and profit from her own tour. This demonstrates that as the pageant grew in popularity, it became more commercialized. It was so commercialized that by 1925, contestants were asked to sign an agreement to appear in a Hollywood film if they won. Contestants also began to promote products on their floats. Pageant promoters, however, did not look favorably upon this. Even so, the 1926 Miss America, Norma Smallwood, made around $100,000 in product endorsements. She would go on to earn a salary that surpassed that of President Coolidge himself.

Although the pageant gained massive popularity, it also sparked controversy amongst religious and women’s groups. In the 1920s, Americans struggled to adjust to modern life while also trying to keep their traditional beliefs and values. Religion was losing its influence on Americans, and Protestantism was no longer a dominant force shaping cultural norms.¹⁴ Religious leaders began to view the popular culture of the 1920s, shaped by materialism and the pursuit of wealth, as a decline in religious values. An example of the “moral decline” that religious groups were concerned with was the display of the female body, especially through bathing suits. They viewed bathing suits and uncovered knees as immoral and improper. By protesting, clergymen contributed to the creation of beach rules that banned or regulated bathing suits.¹⁵ Atlantic City was not an exception. The first year the pageant took place, there were restrictions on bare knees and skin-tight bathing suits. However, the competitions were temporarily exempt from these restrictions. This contributed to the protests against the pageant. In September of 1923, The Ocean City Camp Meeting Association held an annual reunion. A group of people, including a preacher, created a resolution condemning the bathers’ review of the pageant. The resolution stated “The danger lies in taking girls of tender years and robbing them in attire that transgresses the limit of morality”.¹⁶ Besides religious motivations, feminism also played a role. While many might assume that feminism would oppose restrictions on women’s choices of clothes, a more traditional form of feminism supported these restrictions. Feminists argued that the pageant reduced women to their physical appearance, encouraged rivalry, and exploited them for profit. On April 18, 1924, the New York Times reported that the Y.W.C.A created a resolution that condemned the pageant. They claimed it corrupted women of “pure womanhood” by encouraging vanity and envy.¹⁷ In October of 1924, the Pennsylvania Federation of Women’s Clubs presented a statement that denounced beauty pageants. They encouraged women’s educational and religious groups to do the same. The year of 1927 experienced greater opposition. On September 29, 1927, the National Council of Catholic Women presented a statement that stated the pageant “exploited the feminine beauty of young women for financial gain”.¹⁸ They accused parents of entering their daughters for money and urged other Catholics to oppose these pageants. In November of 1927, the Atlantic County Federation of Church Women protested the pageant and the commercialization of the boardwalk. They called it an immoral influence on women and a barrier to the public’s free use of the area. The pageant organizers tried to ignore these protests, however, they decided to temporarily discontinue the pageant in fear it could damage Atlantic City’s reputation.

Miss America & The Flapper

The “New Woman” of the 1920s symbolized the “modern woman” who entered positions that challenged traditional female roles. They entered the public sphere and exhibited changing sexual attitudes. Similar to the push-back from religious groups against a modern secular society, the modern “New Woman” also faced resistance. In addition to religious controversy, the “Miss America” pageant faced criticism for the commercialization that some of the women became involved in. In its later years, it opened opportunities for women to earn their own money in product endorsements, tours, and even Hollywood films. This being a part of the symbol of the “New Woman”, it led to controversy. Even in its beginnings in 1921, it faced similar criticisms. In August 13, 1921, The New York Times reported that an Oklahoma Congressman sought a beauty pageant ban, stating that “Modern women were thinking more of their looks than of their home”.¹⁹ Despite this, the Miss America pageant had actually served as a form of resistance to the “New Woman,” particularly the image of “The Flapper”. Flappers were young, single women who defied Victorian constraints by rejecting corsets, wearing bobbed hair, dressing in shorter, less shaped skirts, applying darker makeup, and smoking. To combat this image, pageant promoters were interested in promoting girls who resembled a more traditional “Victorian-like” kind of womanhood. These women were subservient, and demonstrated capability of being a good wife, homemaker, and mother. Contestants were expected to show no interest in pursuing public careers, instead valuing marriage. Pageant judges and audiences favored contestants who acted and dressed in a way that differed from flappers. Contestants were often accompanied by their mothers and acted surprised in their success in order to maintain an “innocent” image. Additionally, contestants with unbobbed, conservatively styled hair and no dark makeup were praised.²⁰

Despite the festive atmosphere of Atlantic City, contestants were portrayed as church-attending women who abstained from gambling, smoking, and drinking alcohol. Promoters were eager to present the pageant as “above” these vices. These portrayals were essential to the image of “Miss America”, representing the ideal of what they believed the American woman in the 1920s should look like. “Miss America” winners of the 1920s, who possessed these characteristics, were often reported in newspapers. First Miss America, Margaret Gorman, was praised for “possessing the basic virtues of American womanhood”.²¹ Similarly, the 1922-23 winner, Mary Campbell, was admired for her “innocent, wholesome, and traditional” demeanor. The 1924 winner, Ruth Malcomson, stood out for rarely wearing makeup and never having visited a hairdresser. The 1927 winner, Lois Delander, was recognized for her knowledge of Bible verses, along with her refusal to use makeup or tobacco. The Washington Post reported that she was an “Unbobbed high school student.”. The New Britain Herald reported that the 1925 winner, Fay Lanphier, had “blonde unbobbed hair and did not engage in smoking cigarettes,”. The New York Times reported that the 1926 winner, Norma Smallwood, was a “Western girl whose hair was unbobbed.”.²² Overall, pageant promoters wished for these women to represent traditional, Victorian-like ideals of femininity, hoping they would serve as models for other women.

Miss America & The Suffragette

While the “Miss America” pageant openly defied the image of the “modern” flapper, it also subtly defied another kind of “New Woman” of the 1920s, the woman in politics. The concept of a “pageant” has ties to women’s groups of the 19th century, including reform groups, church groups, and schoolteachers. These groups practiced “pageantry” as a form of public entertainment to promote their movements and goals. As early as 1848, the first Women’s Rights convention in Seneca Falls featured elements of pageantry to showcase women’s unity within the movement.²⁵ One of the primary goals of Women’s Rights advocates was the right to vote, known as suffrage. These “suffragettes” were inspired during their travels to England by the pageants hosted by British suffragists. The National American Woman’s Suffrage Association began hosting their own pageants in 1908 with the largest being held in 1913. The National Woman Suffrage Parade & Pageant in Washington D.C. was hosted the day before Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration. The pageant celebrated women’s contributions to democracy and society by dressing up as figures that represented “Lady Columbia”, “Liberty”, “Justice”, and “Peace”.²⁶ These suffragettes sought to raise awareness of their goals, celebrate their unity, and demonstrate their belief in women’s moral value to the vote. Many of these suffragettes would remain politically active in the 1920s, contributing to the presence of women in politics and reforms. They continued the practice of political pageantry through the “Equal Rights” pageants hosted by the Woman’s Party. The Miss America pageant incorporated elements that resembled these suffrage pageants. Not only was it also labeled a “pageant”, the Miss America pageant followed the suffrage tradition of holding parades. Contestants even wore sashes with the names of their states or cities, closely resembling those worn by suffragettes.²⁷ However, instead of promoting social progress and intellectualism, the “Miss America” pageant was based on beauty as defined by the male and public population. Rather than women’s unity under a shared movement, it encouraged competition. Lastly, instead of raising funds for a cause, it focused on commercialization and entertainment. The pageant acted as a reaction to, or alternative version of, the more political pageants, instead promoting a “less threatening” subservient image of women.

Significance

I chose the first Miss America pageant because I was unaware that its origins trace back to the 1920s. After its success in 1921, it quickly evolved from a small, city-based competition into a nationally recognized event attracting participants from across the country. Newspapers, and later radios, covered the pageants. While it became an anticipated event, it received backlash.

At first, the “Miss America” pageant seems like a trivial event. However, it can enhance our understanding of the decade. The first pageants of the 1920s embodied both the stereotypical image of the decade as one of entertainment, fun, and consumerism and as a response to, or even a challenge against, the changing cultural norms of the era. The pageant ironically included elements that strayed from the Victorian image while also reinforcing it. Religious-Women’s groups viewed the display of the female body for competition as immoral. To the perspective of many, it encouraged women to prioritize their beauty over other aspects of their life. It also served as a gateway to wealth, (an image often associated with the decade today) which was seen as immoral by religious groups. It reinforced older values by rejecting one of the most recognizable symbols of the decade, “The Flapper”. The pageant attempted to reject this “new modern woman” by rewarding contestants who resembled her as little as possible. It also provided a version of pageantry that did not showcase women and their social-political interests. 

The controversies that it experienced still remain relevant today, as the backlash seen in the 1920s resurfaced in the late 1960s and beyond. Women’s Liberation feminists argued that the pageant focused on “problematic beauty standards” and reduced women to their physical appearance.

Bibliography

Simon, Bryant. Boardwalk of Dreams: Atlantic City and the Fate of Urban America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Watson, E., ed. “There She Is, Miss America”: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.

Riverol, Armando. Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television. “Chapter 2: The Frolicking ’20s,” 10-26.

Watson, Elwood, and Darcy Martin. “The Miss America Pageant: Pluralism, Femininity, and Cinderella All in One.” Journal of Popular Culture 34, no. 1 (June 1, 2000): 105–26. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.2000.3401_105.x. 

“History.” Miss America. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://missamerica.org/history/.

 Latham, Angela J. 1995. “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity.’” Journal of Popular Culture 29 (3): 149–67. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.1995.00149.x. 

Chapman, Mary. 1999. “Women and Masquerade in the 1913 Suffrage Demonstration in Washington.” Amerikastudien 44 (3): 343–55. https://research-ebsco-com.library2.ramapo.edu:2443/linkprocessor/plink?id=755f8783-eb91-350f-b634-02d97c8d0cb5. 

Moore, Sarah J. 1997. “Making a Spectacle of Suffrage: The National Women Suffrage..” Journal of American Culture (01911813) 20 (1): 89. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734x.1997.00089.x.https://research-ebsco-com.library2.ramapo.edu:2443/c/7frumr/viewer/pdf/ve7e6ydlxr 

Jones, Jennifer. 1998. “The Beauty Queen as Deified Sacrificial Victim.” Theatre History Studies 18 (June): 99–106. https://research-ebsco-com.library2.ramapo.edu:2443/linkprocessor/plink?id=3696314d-a08a-3a3a-9756-878c3fa4a653.

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang, 1995. 

“Here Are the Winners in the Beauty Contest.” The Washington Post (1877–1922), July 24, 1921. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection, pg. 5. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress.

“Camden Girl Is Chosen as Miss South Jersey for Pa. Geanta T Shore.” Camden Daily Courier, September 2, 1921. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress.

“Seeks Beauty Contest Ban: Oklahoma Congressman Says Women Like Looks More Than Men.” New York Times, August 13, 1921, 13. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times.

“ATTACKS BATHING REVIEW.: PREACHER SAYS ATLANTIC CITY EVENT ENDANGERS YOUTHFUL MORALS.” New York Times (1923–), September 11, 1923. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/attacks-bathing-review/docview/103107222/se-2.

“Y.W.C.A. Opens War on Beauty Contest; Calls Atlantic City Parade Peril to Girls.” New York Times (1923–), April 18, 1924. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/y-w-c-opens-war-on-beauty-contest-calls-atlantic/docview/103426053/se-2.

“New Queen of Beauty Has Not Bobbed Hair.” New Britain Herald, New Britain, CT, September 12, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82014519/1925-09-12/ed-1/seq-1/

“Western Girl Wins Miss America Title: Miss Norma Smallwood of Tulsa.” Special to The New York Times. New York Times (1923–), September 11, 1926. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection, p. 15.

“CATHOLIC WOMEN’S RESOLUTION BANS BEAUTY CONTESTS: PROPOSALS THAT ATTACK EXHIBITION OF GIRLS BACKED BY 100. DELINQUENCY CITED; PARENTS BLAMED LEADERS IN WELFARE WORK SAY THEY FIND MENACE IN PULCHRITUDE SHOWS. CATHOLIC WOMEN HIT BEAUTY CONTESTS.” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 27, 1927. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/catholic-womens-resolution-bans-beauty-contests/docview/149667923/se-2.

“Catholic Women Adopt Ban on Beauty Contests: Exploitation of ‘Feminine Pulchritude’ for ‘Commercial Purposes’ is Denounced in Resolution Approved Unanimously by National Council Convention. CATHOLIC WOMEN BAN BEAUTY COMPETITIONS.” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 29, 1927. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/catholic-women-adopt-ban-on-beauty-contests/docview/149693598/se-2.

“Miss Illinois, Blonde, Wins Beauty West Contest: 16-Year-Old Unbobbed …” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 10, 1927. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection.

Paul Thompson. Literary Suffragettes. [ca. 1913]. Topical Press Agency, Hulton Archive, Getty Images. Photograph.

L & M Ottenheimer, publisher. Liberty and Her Attendants – (Suffragette’s Tableau) in Front of Treasury Bldg. March 3, 1913 – Washington, D.C. National Woman’s Party Records. Library of Congress.

R.C. Maxwell Company. BOARDWALK. [CROWD LOOKING AT CAMERA], EASTER, MARCH 27, 1921. Maxwell No. 1555. R.C. Maxwell Company Records. David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University.

Bettmann Archive. Contestants at the 1921 Pageant; Miss Atlantic City (Florence Burke), Miss Philadelphia, and Miss Washington, DC. [1921]. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. Miss America 1927 Lois Delander of Joliet, Illinois. Photograph. 1927.

Bettmann Archive. Large Crowd During Street Parade. Original Caption: Atlantic City: Neptune and Miss America in the parade. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. Pageant Attendees Posing Outdoors. Mr. & Mrs. Howard Chandler Christie & Miss Gorman at the Atlantic City Pageant. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. Beauty Pageant Winner and Mythological Accomplice. Original Caption: Atlantic City, N. J.: Miss Margaret Gorman (Miss America) with Hudson Maxim as “Neptune” at the Atlantic City Beauty Pageant. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. “Miss America Contestants Pose for Photograph.” Photograph.

Featured Image: Bettmann Archive. “American Beauty Pageants Winners. Far left Miss Mary Katherine Campbell (retained title); far right, Miss Margaret Gorman, Miss America in 1921 in gowns.” Photograph. Circa 1922. Bettmann Collection via Getty Images.

Additional Sources

“1920s.” Maxwell Did It!: Photographing the Atlantic City Boardwalk, 1920s-1950s. Duke University Libraries. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://exhibits.library.duke.edu/exhibits/show/maxwell/1920s.

“Beauty Pageant Origins and Culture.” American Experience. PBS. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/missamerica-beauty-pageant-origins-and-culture/.”

“Woman Suffrage Pageants.” National Park Service. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/suffrage-pageants.htm

PBS. “Miss America Timeline.” American Experience. Last modified March 3, 2025. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/miss-america-timeline/.

“History.” Miss America. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://missamerica.org/history/.

Ware, Susan. “Sashes and Suffrage.” New York Times, August 15, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/15/opinion/sashes-suffrage-19th-amendment.html.

Citations

1. R.C. Maxwell Company, BOARDWALK. [CROWD LOOKING AT CAMERA], EASTER, MARCH 27, 1921, Maxwell No. 1555, R.C. Maxwell Company Records, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University. ︎
2. Bryant Simon, Boardwalk of Dreams: Atlantic City and the Fate of Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 19-24. ︎
3. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 85-86. ︎
4. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 32. ︎
5. Armando Riverol, Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992), 12. ︎
6. “Here Are the Winners in the Beauty Contest.” The Washington Post (1877-1922), July 24, 1921. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection, pg. 5. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. ︎
7. “Camden Girl Is Chosen as Miss South Jersey for Pa. Geanta T Shore.” Camden Daily Courier, September 2, 1921. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. ︎
8. Bettmann Archive, Pageant Attendees Posing Outdoors. Mr. & Mrs. Howard Chandler Christie & Miss Gorman at the Atlantic City Pageant; and Beauty Pageant Winner and Mythological Accomplice. Original Caption: Atlantic City, N. J.: Miss Margaret Gorman (Miss America) with Hudson Maxim as “Neptune” at the Atlantic City Beauty Pageant, Photographs. ︎
9. Riverol, Live from Atlantic City, 12-16. ︎
10. Riverol, Live from Atlantic City, 17-18. ︎
11. Bettmann Archive, Large Crowd During Street Parade. Original Caption: Atlantic City: Neptune and Miss America in the parade, Photograph. ︎
12. Bettmann Archive, Miss America 1927 Lois Delander of Joliet, Illinois, Photograph, 1927. ︎
13. Riverol, Live from Atlantic City, 22. ︎
14. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 169-171. ︎
15. Angela J. Latham, “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity,’” Journal of Popular Culture 29, no. 3 (1995): 158. ︎
16. “ATTACKS BATHING REVIEW.: PREACHER SAYS ATLANTIC CITY EVENT ENDANGERS YOUTHFUL MORALS.” New York Times (1923-), Sep 11, 1923. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/attacks-bathing-review/docview/103107222/se-2. ︎
17. “Y.W.C.A. Opens War on Beauty Contest; Calls Atlantic City Parade Peril to Girls.” New York Times (1923-), Apr 18, 1924. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/y-w-c-opens-war-on-beauty-contest-calls-atlantic/docview/103426053/se-2. ︎
18. “Catholic Women Adopt Ban on Beauty Contests: Exploitation of “Feminine Pulchritude” for “Commercial Purposes” is Denounced in Resolution Approved Unanimously by National Council Convention. CATHOLIC WOMEN BAN BEAUTY COMPETITIONS.” The Washington Post (1923-1954), Sep 29, 1927. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/catholic-women-adopt-ban-on-beauty-contests/docview/149693598/se-2 ︎
19. “Seeks Beauty Contest Ban: Oklahoma Congressman Says Women Like Looks More Than Men.” New York Times, August 13, 1921, 13. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times. ︎
20. Elwood Watson, ed., There She Is, Miss America: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 36-38. ︎
21. Elwood Watson and Darcy Martin, “The Miss America Pageant: Pluralism, Femininity, and Cinderella All in One,” Journal of Popular Culture 34, no. 1 (June 1, 2000): 107. ︎
22. “Miss Illinois, Blonde, Wins Beauty West Contest: 16-Year-Old Unbobbed …,” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 10, 1927, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection; “New Queen of Beauty Has Not Bobbed Hair,” New Britain Herald (New Britain, CT), September 12, 1925, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82014519/1925-09-12/ed-1/seq-1/; “Western Girl Wins Miss America Title: Miss Norma Smallwood of Tulsa,” special to The New York Times, New York Times (1923–), September 11, 1926, p. 15, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection. ︎
23. L & M Ottenheimer, publisher, Liberty and Her Attendants – (Suffragette’s Tableau) in Front of Treasury Bldg. March 3, 1913 – Washington, D.C., National Woman’s Party Records, Library of Congress. ︎
24. Paul Thompson, Literary Suffragettes, ca. 1913, Topical Press Agency, Hulton Archive, Getty Images; and Bettmann Archive, Contestants at the 1921 Pageant; Miss Atlantic City (Florence Burke), Miss Philadelphia, and Miss Washington, DC, 1921, Photographs. ︎
25. Jennifer Jones, “The Beauty Queen as Deified Sacrificial Victim,” Theatre History Studies 18 (June 1998): 102. ︎
26. Mary Chapman, “Women and Masquerade in the 1913 Suffrage Demonstration in Washington,” Amerikastudien 44, no. 3 (1999): 344-345. ︎
27. Jones, “The Beauty Queen as Deified Sacrificial Victim,” 102. ︎

grlynn

Grlynn is a Ramapo College senior majoring in history

In the 1920s, American culture was increasingly becoming more secularized, creating tensions between modernity and traditional religious values. The first “Miss America” pageants embodied these conflicts, as it became both a target of religious resistance and a reflection of a callback to older ideas. Americans struggled to balance adapting to modernity while preserving their traditional beliefs and values. Religion was losing its influence on Americans with many standards straying away from the strictness of Victorian attitudes. Religion and Protestantism was no longer a dominant force in cultural norms and in efforts to maintain religion, urban churches started programs that created places of worship alongside spaces for social, recreational, and educational purposes. However, many religious leaders, including Protestant ministers and Jewish leaders, faced declining attendance and decreasing support for missionary efforts. These leaders viewed the popular culture of the 1920s, dominated by materialism and the pursuit of wealth, as a decline in religious values. Religious fundamentalists and Evangelical Christians also feared that the country was experiencing a moral and spiritual decline.¹ The first “Miss America” pageants of the 1920s serve as an example of an event that religious groups sought to oppose through protests, aiming to dismantle what they considered a moral decline. The “Miss America” pageant included a bathing suit competition, which many religious groups opposed. They sought to combat the rise of swimwear in the 1920s, particularly for women, viewing it as immoral and immodest. Moral outrage from clergymen contributed to the censorship of physical appearances on public beaches, as they insisted that women cover their knees.² This influenced the “Miss America” pageant because of its emphasis on “bathing beauties”. The pageant was met with further resistance with religious groups claiming it damaged the good choices, reputation, and morals of young women. Groups like Southern Baptists and the “Atlantic County Federation of Church Women”, joined in resistance and protest. Not only did they believe it damaged women’s morals, but they also viewed it as the exploitation of women for financial gain and corrupting them by encouraging rivalry among themselves.³ These protests are credited as having an important role in why the pageant was temporarily paused in 1928 through the early 30s.

Ironically, while traditional religious groups opposed the pageant for being “immoral”, it was an event that eagerly promoted a “traditional” and “conservative” idea of femininity. The “Miss America” pageant aimed to uphold the image of a more traditional woman, distancing itself from  the “New Woman,” represented by women in politics and flappers. Before the “Miss America” pageant was established in 1921, suffragettes held suffrage pageants. They dressed up as influential women in history, seeking to raise public awareness and funds for their political efforts.⁴ However, the “Miss America” pageant focused only on beauty, based on what men and the audience viewed as beautiful. In addition, the pageant strived to distance itself from the flapper image. Flappers were young, single women who strayed away from Victorian constraints by wearing bobbed hair, shorter and less shaped skirts, darker makeup, and smoked. In contrast, the “Miss America” pageant praised “non threatening” women who had conservative hairstyles such as longer hair, were more subservient, viewed beauty as an important goal, and demonstrated capability of being a good wife, homemaker, and mother.⁵ Contestants who had longer hair were more often praised than those with bobbed or bobbed-like hair. It was an important characteristic for “Miss America” to have, especially in the earlier competitions. Pageant organizers also tried to portray the event as “above alcohol” or other habits such as smoking. Overall, the pageant wished to portray its winners as symbols of what a 1920s American woman “should be and look like”. While religious traditionalists viewed it as immoral, the pageant still sought to revive a more traditional ideal of Victorian-like femininity and virtue.

Bibliography

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang, 1995.

Riverol, Armando. Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992.

Latham, Angela J. “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity.'” Journal of Popular Culture 29, no. 3 (1995): 149–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3840.1995.00149.x.

Watson, Elwood, and Darcy Martin. “The Miss America Pageant: Pluralism, Femininity, and Cinderella All in One.” Journal of Popular Culture 34, no. 1 (June 1, 2000): 105–26. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.2000.3401_105.x.  

Watson, E., ed. “There She Is, Miss America”: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.

Bettmann Archive. Policewomen Checking Length Violations. Chicago, Illinois, 1921.

Bettmann Archive. 1924 Miss America from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Ruth Malcomson. 1924.

Thomas, Bob. Cinema Personalities, 1923, American Actress Colleen Moore. Popperfoto/Getty Images, 1923.

Featured Photo: Atlantic Foto Service. Contestants of the 1925 Miss America Pageant. Atlantic City, New Jersey, 1925.

Citations

1. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 169-186. ︎
2. Angela J. Latham, “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity,’” Journal of Popular Culture 29, no. 3 (1995): 158, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3840.1995.00149.x. ︎
3. Armando Riverol, Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992), 24. ︎
4. Elwood Watson, ed., “There She Is, Miss America”: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 28-29. ︎
5. Watson, “There She Is, Miss America”, 32. ︎

grlynn

Grlynn is a Ramapo College senior majoring in history

Ross’ Early Years

Nellie Tayloe Ross was born on November 29, 1876, in St. Joseph, Missouri, on a plantation owned by her maternal grandfather in Andrew County. Her parents were James Wynns Tayloe and Elizabeth Blair Green. Nellie’s family had been devastated by the Civil War’s aftermath; in response, she had always feared poverty. Ross’ education was facilitated by her brothers who aided in helping her learn how to read when she was 5 years old. She attended the Maxwell School with her brothers. To achieve a more successful future, her family moved to Miltonvale, Kansas. She attended the United Presbyterian Church and her mother was involved in women’s suffrage. Here, she witnessed her mother in a position of leadership, a position which her father had respected. Her southern upbringing and her mother had influenced her political beliefs. She remained a Democrat for most of her life and gained the belief from her mother that women’s traditional roles were compatible with public responsibilities.² After her mothers death, her family moved back towards the Missouri river into Omaha, Nebraska. There, she became a kindergarten teacher. In 1900, she went to visit relatives in Tennessee where she met and married her husband, William Ross. They moved to Cheyenne, Wyoming in 1902 and had four boys together. William started his own law practice and got involved in politics. He ran for governor and won with the state’s failing economy as his main concern.

The Election of Nellie Tayloe Ross

On September 25, 1924, her husband underwent an appendectomy. He died on October 2, just one month before the general election. The Democratic Party asked Nellie Tayloe Ross to be their candidate and after much convincing, she agreed. Both the Republican and Democratic parties held their conventions in Cheyenne on October 14 to choose their candidates. The Republican Party nominated Casper attorney and politician Eugene J. Sullivan. After receiving the Democratic nomination, Ross remained at home and let her friends lead the campaign. Political advertisements encouraged voters to support Ross because she promised to carry out her husband’s policies. This included policies that helped the economy and workers. They also portrayed her opponent, Sullivan, as a supporter of the founder of Sinclair Oil, Harry Sinclair, who was involved in the Teapot Dome Scandal. One advertisement in The Buffalo Voice encouraged voters to “Beat Texas to It,” encouraging Wyoming to become the first state to elect a female governor, as Miriam “Ma” Ferguson was also running for governor in Texas.⁶ While both Ross and Ferguson were the first women elected as governors in the U.S, Ross was sworn in first, earning her the title of “First Female Governor of the United States”. She defeated Sullivan by more than 8,000 votes. In addition, she even outperformed Republican Francis E. Warren, Wyoming’s senior U.S. Senator.⁷ On January 5, 1925, she was sworn in as governor of Wyoming during an inauguration ceremony in the Senate chambers in Cheyenne. She served as governor from 1925 to 1927.

Ross’ Governorship: Politics, Law, Economics, Prohibition, & Agriculture

The 1920s has the reputation of being a time of prosperity, economic growth, and the boom of the stock market. However, it differed from state to state. Before the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression, Wyoming was facing an economic depression. Ross would be among the governors who confronted this depression. Wyoming’s economy depended on livestock, business, farming, coal production, and the Union Pacific Railroad. In post-WW1 Wyoming, the loss of government contracts, declining demand for certain commodities, deflation, and the 1919 drought contributed to this economic depression. To tackle these problems, Ross proposed a plan to address the state’s budget deficit and outlined strategies for managing it. She found that railroad property values were lower than those in neighboring states and that many mining corporations owned large amounts of property while avoiding taxes. She believed that more equitable taxation could help resolve the issue. In the 1920s, businesses and businessmen were becoming more idealized, striving to present a more polished and positive image. At the same time, the issue of business taxes became a significant concern in response to previous revisions to tax laws. People, such as Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon, sought to reduce business tax, while Ross was concerned with equitable tax within her state.⁸ Following this, she discovered that falling oil prices were causing shortfalls and that light oil production was decreasing. In response, she supported producing more black oil and using it to build state’s highways. To her disappointment, her proposals to explore commercial possibilities for black oil were declined. Banks were also failing. Between 1920-1924, 68 state and national banks had failed in Wyoming. Half had closed by 1924.⁹ To address banking closures, Ross proposed laws to protect banks and depositors. This included laws that made sure that people wouldn’t lose their money if a bank failed. Lastly, Ross answered to further tax concerns by supporting a bill that would give one-third of mineral royalties to public schools. This would help with reducing local taxes. However, it was not approved by the legislature.

When we think of the 1920s, we also often think of Prohibition, a time when alcohol was banned across the U.S. During the late 19th century and into the 1920s, women had entered the political arena. One popular reform amongst them was Prohibition. This led to the 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act that made the production, sale, and transportation of alcohol illegal. Women supported Prohibition because they believed male drinking led to reckless behavior, such as sexual excess, which harmed women and children in the home.¹¹ Ross, like these women, supported this law. She believed that the purchaser of alcohol was just as guilty as the bootlegger. She proposed a bill to enforce this, however, it was later declined by the legislature. During her term, she had to deal with two sheriffs who were involved in alcohol related acts. She received and agreed to a request from District Court Judge Metz to allow an investigation into Park County Sheriff William Loomis.¹² Loomis was accused of accepting pay from alleged bootlegger, Fay Willford, in protection money. Loomis faced charges for serving confiscated alcohol to prisoners, accepting bribes and protection money from Willford and James P. Morgan in relation to whiskey on Morgan’s property, and for appearing intoxicated in public. Ross ordered a removal of Loomis who she deemed unfit for his position. On June 17, 1925, The Park County Herald reported that “The Governor (Ross) having heard all the evidence, does find generally against the defendant, William H. Loomis”.¹³ Another Sheriff named Scott Hazen was charged with appearing intoxicated in public, taking confiscated alcohol for his own use, getting involved in a plan to transport and sell alcohol, and failing to serve warrants to known bootleggers while allowing speakeasies to operate. In response to his future hearings on this matter, he resigned from office.

In addition, Ross also dealt with several other issues, including farm and agricultural concerns, and protecting Wyoming’s claims to Colorado River water. Farm foreclosures and low prices were an issue in Wyoming. This prevented the settlement and expansion of farms on federal projects in Wyoming. Under her husband’s governorship, he had created a farm loan program which she continued by making it permanent. Later, Ross convinced Elwood Mead, the man behind water laws, and the Secretary of Interior, Herbert Work to review these projects. Mead explained that he could only point out the problems, and it was up to farmers and state officials to determine the additional funds and introduce legislation to address those issues. Ross worked with a man named George Kreutzer from the Bureau of Reclamation to address these issues. She used local newspapers to collect farmer’s concerns and seek help from the Bureau of Reclamation. She also created a reclamation committee made up of farmers to explain their challenges and issues to the Bureau of Reclamation.¹⁴

Women’s Rights, Feminism, Reform and Ross’ Views on Women

Beginning in the late 19th century and continuing into the 1920s, the “new woman” became more active in politics, with Ross serving as an example. They became political actors and lobbied for progressive reform. Suffrage was one of these reforms. Through this, women had gained the right to vote in 1920 with the ratification of the 19th Amendment. Wyoming, the state where Ross governed, however, already became the nation’s first suffrage state in 1869. This prompted many people and newspapers to declare Wyoming as the “Equality State”, further encouraging the election of Ross. Other reforms that “the new woman” supported included labor laws, which Ross had also aligned with. A suffragist named Grace Hebard had written to Ross in regards to a child labor bill. Ross responded by confirming her position on this issue claiming that the bill would be an important step in protecting the children of America. However, her child labor bill was later declined by the senate because of fear it would interfere with the rights of parents to give their children working roles.¹⁶ She also advocated for protective legislation to support female employees, but this proposal was also rejected. Ross continued to be dedicated to maintaining the welfare of workers. She supported and proposed mine safety legislation. These legislations were successfully approved.

While women became increasingly involved in politics, their views on women’s rights varied. Women, like Alice Paul and The Woman’s Party, advocated for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) that guaranteed equal rights for men and women. They believed that while suffrage was a major breakthrough in women’s political equality, the ERA would answer to the remaining limitations that women faced. This included the inability to execute contracts, unequal wages, and marriage property rights. In 1923, the legislation was introduced to Congress. Women like Julia Lathrop and Frances Perkins emphasized women’s distinctiveness, arguing that special labor protections tailored to their sex were necessary. This led them to reject the ERA in fear that it would undermine sex-based labor legislation that specifically protected women.¹⁷ Like these women, Ross held her own views on women’s roles, rights, and nature, which often left some feminists disappointed. Initially, many women’s rights advocates, suffragettes, and feminists viewed Ross’ election as a great victory. However, some women were left disappointed in Ross’ refusal to prioritize her influence on the women’s rights movement. Instead, she stated that her duty was to the people of Wyoming as their governor. In 1925, Hebard, the same woman who had written to Ross about a child labor bill, also suggested that Ross appoint women to positions in the Child and Animal Protection Board and the University Board of Trustees. This was left unanswered. Hebard continued to suggest that she attend a meeting of the “National League of Women Voters”, which Ross had declined.

Ross did believe in women’s capabilities within the political sphere and encouraged them to seek public office. However, she would often express her belief that a woman’s most important social role was being a wife and a mother. On March 28, 1926, The Brownsville Herald reported that “Although she (Ross) has faith in the future of America’s young womanhood and believes that ‘freedom of the younger generation of women will prove beneficial. Governor Nellie Tayloe Ross holds that the highest position of woman in life is matrimony and motherhood’”.¹⁹ Despite this, it did not stop her from believing in the importance of women in politics and positions of power. She was more concerned with the perception that engaging in politics had “unsexed” her.²⁰ She was committed to proving that despite her role in political power, she was still a feminine woman. In other words, femininity, politics, and public service were all compatible. While she praised motherhood, marriage, and domestic responsibilities, she also made it clear that women should not limit themselves to traditional roles alone.

Ross did not reject the traditional notion of women being wives and mothers. However, another reason for her distance from feminist ideology was the political climate of the 1920s. Politicians and political parties often supported women who did not engage in the feminist movement. If she had explicitly engaged in feminist activism, it is likely that she would not have been chosen as her party’s political candidate. She found herself having to prove that she could be as tough as any male politician while still maintaining her femininity. She advised women to not portray themselves as too “aggressive” when they entered office.²¹ Ross wanted people to support her because she was a capable candidate, not just because she was a woman. She hoped they would focus on her abilities and not discriminate against her because of her sex. In 1926, Ross responded to concerns that the entrance of women in politics would cause them to create havoc by exercising their newfound power. On January 24th, The Washington Post reported that she responded by stating, “It opens to woman the door for unbounded service and challenges her to prove whether she does possess high ideals.”.²² After losing her second-term election, she admitted regretting not doing more to appeal to women and challenge the sexist notions she faced.

Overall, despite Ross’ goal to distance herself from explicit feminist activism, she is still viewed as an important figure to women’s rights. Her title as the first woman governor in the U.S was and is still revered. She inspired other “new women” to get involved in the field of politics.

Wyoming’s Re-Election & Ross’ Post-Term

In 1926, The Democratic Party remained with her as their candidate for the next election. The Republican Party chose Frank Emerson, the state engineer. While Ross had won the 1924 election by a significant amount of votes, she did not succeed in re-election for a number of reasons. The most basic reason was that Wyoming was still an overwhelmingly Republican state, and the party had strengthened once again. Wyoming’s senior U.S. senator, Francis E. Warren, was believed to have been on the brink of passing away of old age. At the same time, Wyoming also had a Democratic junior senator, John B. Kendrick. If Ross had won re-election, she would have had the right to choose the next senior senator.²⁵ Republicans would not have preferred two Democrats. Another reason was that during the 1920s, the Klu Klux Klan had a resurgence, and many had controlled votes. Anti-immigrant sentiments and nativism surged during the decade, with Catholics and Catholic immigrants facing discrimination. Some Republicans portrayed Ross as a Catholic, which the KKK held hatred against. Lastly, Ross was a woman. Many still believed women were incapable of handling politics. Some female voters even believed that Ross didn’t automatically deserve their votes just because she was a woman. The Cody Enterprise reported on a woman who had voiced this. A woman named Mrs. Jenkins stated “What has Mrs. Ross done particularly to deserve the votes of women? Has she ever since taken any interest in Woman’s Suffrage? Has she ever been a delegate to a Woman’s Suffrage convention, to a Woman’s Christian Temperance meeting, to a Woman’s Relief Corps convention, to a meeting of the Federation of Woman’s clubs for Wyoming?.”.²⁶ However, while she had lost, she remained in politics and Democratic women’s groups. In the 1930s, she became a campaign orator and was even later on appointed as Director of the U.S Mint by Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Significance

I chose Nellie Tayloe Ross’s achievement of becoming the first female governor in the U.S. because of my interest in women’s history. I was surprised to learn that a woman had already become a state governor as early as the 1920s. Ross’s victory was widely reported, with many 1920s newspapers covering her historic achievement and status as the first woman governor. It was perceived as a significant accomplishment.

The story of Nellie Tayloe Ross both reinforces and complicates our understanding of the decade. Common themes of the 1920s are flappers, economic prosperity, and prohibition. Flappers are known to have been young “new women” who strayed away from restrictive and traditional female roles. However, Ross represents a different kind of “new woman” who did the same. She was a woman involved in politics. Another aspect that her story demonstrates is that while women were increasingly becoming involved in politics, some had to distance themselves from feminism in order to gain support from male peers. Ross’ distance from feminism and her commitment to continuing what her husband left behind may explain why newspaper coverage of her victory was more positive than many people today would expect.

The theme of Prohibition is something many associate with the 1920s and Ross’ time as governor demonstrates that it is an accurate depiction. Prohibition had Americans question the amount of power the federal government possessed. Many people and certain senators argued that it violated the constitution by limiting states’ rights.²⁷ However, Ross’ stance on strict prohibition enforcement demonstrated that some state leaders supported it. She proved this by confronting two sheriffs who were accused of crimes associated with it.

Finally, Ross’s story complicates the common image of the 1920s as being filled with prosperity and fun. Wyoming was a state that was going through an economic depression and Ross’s election loss exposed a darker side of the decade. ​The KKK had reemerged and gained some influence in the political sphere.

Bibliography

Mackey, Mike. “Nellie Tayloe Ross and Wyoming Politics.” Journal of the West 42, no. 3 (2003): 25–34.https://research-ebsco-com.library2.ramapo.edu:2443/linkprocessor/plink?id=f5cae36e-3b49-3ace-ba5b-0cabe6b1f206

Scharff, Virginia. “Feminism, Femininity, and Power: Nellie Tayloe Ross and the Woman Politician’s Dilemma.” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 15, no. 3 (March 1, 1995): 87–106. doi:10.2307/3346786.

Scheer, Teva J. 2005. Governor Lady: The Life and Times of Nellie Tayloe Ross. Columbia: University of Missouri Press.http://site.ebrary.com/id/10129006.

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang, 1995.

“Beat Texas to It, and Elect Woman Governor,” The Buffalo Voice (Buffalo, Johnson County, WY), October 17, 1924. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn92067096/1924-10-17/ed-1/seq-1/.

“Wyoming Inaugurates Nellie Tayloe Ross—First Lady Governor in United States.” Park County Herald (Cody, Wyo.), January 7, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn92066928/1925-01-07/ed-1/seq-1/.

“Her Excellency, The Governess.” The Challis Messenger (Challis, Idaho), January 14, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn88056159/1925-01-14/ed-1/seq-3/.

“Evening Star.” Evening Star (Washington, D.C.), January 18, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1925-01-18/ed-1/seq-96/.

“Wyoming Senate Rejects Child Labor Amendm’t.” The Cody Enterprise (Cody, Wyo.), January 21, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn92066929/1925-01-21/ed-1/seq-1/.

“Armed Prohibition Force Guards Gov. Nellie Ross.” The Washington Post (1923-1954), April 11, 1925. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Washington Post, pg. 1.

“Gov. Ross Removes Loomis from Office.” Park County Herald (Cody, Wyo.), June 17, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn92066928/1925-06-17/ed-1/seq-4/.

“Matrimony Is Proper Thing.” Brownsville Herald (Brownsville, Tex.), March 28, 1926. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn86063730/1926-03-28/ed-1/seq-5/.

“Woman Governor Sees No Havoc in Vote for Her Sex: Merely Opens Door…,” The Washington Post (1923-1954), January 24, 1926. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Washington Post, pg. A7.

“Clean Politics Urged On Women.” Evening Star (Washington, D.C.), December 2, 1926. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1926-12-02/ed-1/seq-27/.

“Prominent Wyoming Lady Says Mrs. Ross Not Entitled to Woman Vote—Sympath Not Issue.” The Cody Enterprise and the Park County Herald (Cody, Wyo.), October 13, 1926. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn92066930/1926-10-13/ed-1/seq-4/.

Rockpile Museum. Nellie Tayloe Ross for Governor. Postcard, 1926. Catalog No. 2004.025.0005. Accessed March 21, 2025. https://rockpilemuseum.pastperfectonline.com/archive/E78C4C54-6A62-4033-A6E8-793416583805.

Bettmann Archive. Nellie Ross and Eleanor Roosevelt. Photograph. July 1928.

Bettmann Archive. Governor Nellie Tayloe Ross Opens Gimbels. Philadelphia, 1926.

Bain News Service. Gov. Nellie T. Ross. [ca. 1915–1920]. George Grantham Bain Collection, Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/item/2014709682/.

Featured image: Bettmann Archive. Nellie Tayloe Ross Making a Speech with Clarence Morley, 1924.

Additional Resources

Nellie Tayloe Ross. YouTube video, 7:00. Posted by Wyoming PBS, 7 years ago.

National Governors Association. “Nellie Tayloe Ross.” National Governors Association. Accessed March 17, 2025. https://www.nga.org/governor/nellie-tayloe-ross/.

Rea, Tom. “The Ambition of Nellie Tayloe Ross.” WyoHistory.org, November 8, 2014. Accessed March 17, 2025. https://www.wyohistory.org/encyclopedia/ambition-nellie-tayloe-ross.

Wyoming History Day. “Nellie Tayloe Ross, First Woman Governor in the United States.” Wyoming History Day. Accessed March 17, 2025. https://www.wyominghistoryday.org/theme-topics/nellie-tayloe-ross-first-woman-governor-united-states

“Nellie Tayloe Ross: Wyoming, United States’ First Female Governor.” Wyoming Public Media, January 10, 2025. https://www.wyomingpublicmedia.org/open-spaces/2025-01-10/nellie-tayloe-ross-wyoming-united-states-first-female-governor.

“Nellie Tayloe Ross Papers, 1900-1977.” Archives West, accessed March 24, 2025. https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv317842.

“Nellie Tayloe Ross.” Digital Public Library of America, accessed March 24, 2025. https://dp.la/search?q=Nellie+Tayloe+Ross.

Lucht, Tracy, and Chelsea Davis. “Gender, Race, and Place in Newspaper Coverage of Women ‘Firsts’ after the Nineteenth Amendment.” Journalism History 47, no. 4 (October 2, 2021): 333–52. doi:10.1080/00947679.2021.1982564.

Citations

1. Bettmann Archive/Getty Images, Governor Nellie Tayloe Ross Opens Gimbels, Philadelphia, featuring Ellis Gimbel, Governor Ross, and Mayor Kendrick of Philadelphia; Bain News Service, Gov. Nellie T. Ross, [ca. 1915–1920], George Grantham Bain Collection, Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2014709682/. ︎
2. Teva J. Scheer, Governor Lady: The Life and Times of Nellie Tayloe Ross (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2005), 27. ︎
3. Wyoming Inaugurates Nellie Tayloe Ross—First Lady Governor in United States,” Park County Herald (Cody, Wyo.), January 7, 1925, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn92066928/1925-01-07/ed-1/seq-1/. ︎
4. “Her Excellency, The Governess.” The Challis Messenger (Challis, Idaho), January 14, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn88056159/1925-01-14/ed-1/seq-3/. ︎
5. Evening Star (Washington, D.C.), January 18, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1925-01-18/ed-1/seq-96/. ︎
6. “Beat Texas to It, and Elect Woman Governor,” The Buffalo Voice (Buffalo, Johnson County, WY), October 17, 1924. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn92067096/1924-10-17/ed-1/seq-1/. ︎
7. Mike Mackey, “Nellie Tayloe Ross and Wyoming Politics,” Journal of the West 42, no. 3 (2003): 26. ︎
8. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 32-35. ︎
9. Scheer, Governor Lady, 74. ︎
10. “Armed Prohibition Force Guards Gov. Nellie Ross,” The Washington Post (1923-1954), April 11, 1925. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Washington Post, pg. 1. ︎
11. Dumenil, Modern Temper, 229. ︎
12. Mackey, “Nellie Tayloe Ross and Wyoming Politics,” 28. ︎
13. “Gov. Ross Removes Loomis from Office.” Park County Herald (Cody, Wyo.), June 17, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn92066928/1925-06-17/ed-1/seq-4/ ︎
14. Mackey, “Nellie Tayloe Ross and Wyoming Politics,” 30. ︎
15. “Wyoming Senate Rejects Child Labor Amendm’t.” The Cody Enterprise (Cody, Wyo.), January 21, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn92066929/1925-01-21/ed-1/seq-1/. ︎
16. Scheer, Governor Lady, 83. ︎
17. Dumenil, Modern Temper, 105.
    ︎
18. “Clean Politics Urged On Women.” Evening Star (Washington, D.C.), December 2, 1926. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1926-12-02/ed-1/seq-27/. ︎
19. “Matrimony Is Proper Thing,” Brownsville Herald (Brownsville, Tex.), March 28, 1926, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn86063730/1926-03-28/ed-1/seq-5/. ︎
20. Virginia Scharff, “Feminism, Femininity, and Power: Nellie Tayloe Ross and the Woman Politician’s Dilemma,” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 15, no. 3 (1995): 88. ︎
21. Scharff, “Feminism, Femininity, and Power,” 88. ︎
22. “Woman Governor Sees No Havoc in Vote for Her Sex: Merely Opens Door…,” The Washington Post (1923-1954), January 24, 1926. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Washington Post, pg. A7. ︎
23. Nellie Tayloe Ross for Governor, postcard, 1926, Catalog No. 2004.025.0005, Rockpile Museum, accessed March 21, 2025, https://rockpilemuseum.pastperfectonline.com/archive/E78C4C54-6A62-4033-A6E8-793416583805. ︎
24. Bettmann Archive, Nellie Ross and Eleanor Roosevelt, photograph, July 1928. ︎
25. Mackey, “Nellie Tayloe Ross and Wyoming Politics,” 31. ︎
26. “Prominent Wyoming Lady Says Mrs. Ross Not Entitled to Woman Vote—Sympath Not Issue,” The Cody Enterprise and the Park County Herald (Cody, Wyo.), October 13, 1926. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn92066930/1926-10-13/ed-1/seq-4/. ︎
27. Dumenil, Modern Temper, 29. ︎

grlynn

Grlynn is a Ramapo College senior majoring in history

Women’s lives had changed significantly from the late 19th century into the 1920s. They became more involved in politics and increasingly joined the workforce. This challenged the traditional ideas of women’s roles within society. Social and sexual norms surrounding women had also changed, leading to new ideas about womanhood and femininity. Many women had moved away from restrictive clothing of the Victorian era, as seen with the example of flappers. 

In the 1920s, Nellie Tayloe Ross achieved a historic title. She was elected Governor of Wyoming in 1924. She took office in 1925, becoming the first woman to ever serve as a governor in the U.S.A. Ross represents the “new woman” but in a way that differs from the stereotypical image of the carefree flappers of the 1920s. She was an older woman actively involved in politics. During the late 19th century and into the 1920s, women had entered the political arena. They became political actors, supported suffrage, and sought progressive and urban reforms. One popular reform was prohibition, a law infamously tied to the image of the 1920s. Ross was one of these women. She was a firm supporter of prohibition. Ross had believed that the consumer was just as guilty as the bootlegger. She was even once requested to authorize an investigation of the Park County Sheriff, who had been accused of accepting pay from an alleged bootlegger. 

The “new woman” of the 1920s would agree on one thing: women’s roles within society were changing, and their roles would be different from the old restrictive version of womanhood. However, this did not prevent disagreement and tension. Women’s ideas of feminism and women’s rights were sometimes at odds. Some women, like Julia Lathrop and Frances Perkins, believed in women’s distinctiveness. They believed that women needed special protections that aligned with their sex. While many women supported the Equal Rights Amendment, which promoted equal rights between men and women, many women like Lathrop and Perkins felt indifferent to it. They feared this would create barriers to sex-based labor legislation that specifically protected working women. Ross is an example of a woman who possessed different ideas of women’s newfound roles and power. Feminists and suffragists did view Ross’ election as a victory and a step towards women’s political voices. However, some women’s rights movement leaders were disappointed with Ross’ refusal to prioritize her influence on the movement. She believed in women’s capabilities within the political field but was not a “hardcore feminist”. Echoing the traditional views during the previous century, she stated that a woman’s role as a wife and mother was of the highest importance. She would become cautious with her involvement in feminism because of its negative image within the politics of the time. This cautiousness prevented her from appointing more women in government positions. Nevertheless, Ross firmly believed in women’s roles within the political sphere. While she promoted femininity, she sought to prove it did not have to dismiss a woman’s right to exercise political power. Her status as the first woman governor still inspired other “new women” to get involved in the field of politics. 

Bibliography

Bettmann Archive. USA: Clara Bow in Get Your Man. 1927. Photograph. Bettmann Archive. https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/clara-bow-in-get-your-man-news-photo/514892606.

Bettmann Archive. Portrait of Actress Louise Brooks. Photograph. Bettmann Archive. https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/actress-louise-brooks-poses-for-a-portrait-session-in-news-photo/514205164.

Evening Star (Washington, D.C.). October 24, 1929. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1929-10-24/ed-1/seq-3/.

Bettmann Archive. Activist Julia Clifford Lathrop Posing with Her Supporters. Photograph. https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/julia-clifford-lathrop-lead-the-way-for-improving-american-news-photo/517294142.

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang, 1995.

Mackey, Mike. “Nellie Tayloe Ross and Wyoming Politics.” Journal of the West 42, no. 3 (2003): 25–34. https://research-ebsco-com.library2.ramapo.edu:2443/linkprocessor/plink?id=f5cae36e-3b49-3ace-ba5b-0cabe6b1f206.

Scharff, Virginia. “Feminism, Femininity, and Power: Nellie Tayloe Ross and the Woman Politician’s Dilemma.” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 15, no. 3 (1995): 87–106. https://doi.org/10.2307/3346786.

grlynn

Grlynn is a Ramapo College senior majoring in history

The battle over equality of the sexes is one that has permeated the 20th century. The 1920s were a turbulent and successful decade for women’s rights, signaling a dramatic shift in female politics, social status and what the future of feminism might look like. During this period women were embracing the freedoms and independence of post-war America, and as a result began to question the social, cultural and political boundaries they faced based on their gender.

Famously passed in 1920, the 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote for the first time in American history. After decades of protests and legal obstacles, suffrage was finally realized throughout the country. However, the fight for equal rights didn’t stop there. Despite the 19th Amendment being ratified, there continued to be countless gender based desriminations related to a woman’s work, finances, personal life and body. 

The second decade of the 20th century saw women getting involved in politics and policy like never before in American history. Women were able to meet, organize and plan movements that would improve their lives and remove them from second-citizen status. 

During the 1920s the National Women’s Party, which had originally been founded on the basis of suffrage, adopted a new goal. These post-suffrage feminists , including one of the NWP’s founders Alice Paul, believed that true equality could only be achieved through absolute legal protection. In December of 1923 the Equal Rights Amendment was introduced to congress for the first time. 

The document presented to congress in 1923 fared some changes to the original bill drafted by activist Alice Paul and lawyer Crystal Eastman. Titled the “Lucretia Mott Amendment,” the document stated that “men and women shall have equal rights throughout the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction.” If the amendment were to be passed it would open the doors to women’s rights issues. The broad nature of the document as well could guarantee victory as it related to gender based discrinimation in the future. 

A Brief History of Suffrage

One of the most defining events of the Suffrage Movement occurred in 1848, where a group of abolitionists organized for the first time in Seneca Falls, New York at would be remembered as the infamous Seneca Falls Convention.

It was at there that activist created the Declaration of Sentiments, which stated that “all men and women were created equal,” despite what the founding fathers may have written in the constitution. By 1890 the National American Women Suffrage Association was formed. After over a decade of protest and activism across the country, the 19th Amendment was ratified by congress on August 18th, 1920.

Alice Paul (1885-1977)

Alice Paul was a prominent player in the fight for Suffrage, as well as a pioneer of the Equal Rights Amendment. Born in Mount Laurel, New Jersey, Paul spent the majority of her life surrounded by the belief that women were equal to men as both her parents greatly encouraged gender equality. In 1916 Paul co-founded the National Women’s party with activist Lucy Burns to organize on the basis of securing women the right to vote. After securing victory in regards to voting rights, Paul directed her efforts towards the Equal Rights Amendment.

Crystal Eastman (1881-1928)

Eastman co-founded the American Civil Liberties Union in 1920 and was a prominent leader in women’s suffrage throughout the 1920s. Eastman participated in and helped run multiple social movements during her life including suffrage, internationalism, socialism and pacifism. After the ratification of the 19th Amendment Eastman foresaw that the right to vote would not guarantee women protection and equal liberties under the law. Eastman believed that women rights groups needed to begin working towards equal rights rather than just voting rights.

Eastman and Paul shared similar goals as they related to what the future of the women’s movement should look like. While the majority of suffragettes saw the 19th Amendment as a victory, Eastman knew that it was just the beginning of a longer and bigger fight for equality.

 “The principle of the Equal Rights Amendment is supremely important. The very passion with which it is opposed, suggests that it is vital.”

On Women and Revolution(Crystal Eastman)

The Joint Resolution (1923)

Direct in nature, those who wrote and presented the ERA demanded immediate action against gender based discrimination. High off the tail of the 19th Amendment, Paul and other former suffragettes saw passing the ERA as the next logical step.

In order for the resolution to reach congress, the NWP used activists Susan B. Anthony’s nephew, Daniel Anthony Jr. to introduce the document. The Joint Resolution as seen below proposes a 20th amendment to end discrimination on the basis of sex. The document was received in congress December 13th, 1923.

Reactions to the E.R.A

After its release it’s fair to say that the ERA was not popular in congress, nor amongst the general public. Many still believed that women belonged in the home, and should remain dependent on men. Traditionalists fought against the ERA in an effort to ensure the stability of gender roles. On the other hand, members of the feminist movement argued against the amendment becasue they felt the NWP was failing to concider both the racial and class lines that divided the party.

During this time working class and immigrant women had directed their attention towards child labor laws and safety conditions in facroties. It would be even more difficult to raise these issues if former suffragettes began to demand an Equal Rights Amendment. Labor activists in particular feared that the protections they had won for female workers would be jeopardized if the ERA was passed. These opposite opinions caused divided within the NWP, causing many to leave due to the direction the party was headed.

Something else the ERA failed to consider was that despite the 19th Amendment, women of color were still unable to vote due to racial discrimination. By focussing all their efforts on the Equal Rights Amendment, the NWP failed to consider the legal discrimination based on race that still occurred in the United States.

The ERA in the 1920s was a failed endeavor. Despite the efforts made by Paul and other activists, lack of support for the amendment stunted it’s progress. Although instances of resurgence would occur in future decades, it wouldn’t be until the 1960s and 1970s that the ERA would enter the minds of a new generation of feminists.

Second Wave Feminism and the E.R.A

The various social and political turmoils of the 1960s and 1970s caused the Equal Rights Amendment to re-enter the public sphere. Piggybacking off of the Civil Rights Movement and Second Wave Feminism, the ERA made its way to politicians reacting to the current social changes throughout the country.

The amendment was passed by congress in 1972 and sent out for ratification at the state level. This process, although slower, has seen success over the decades since its administration.

There are currently 38 states that have passed the ERA, and of the states that have not there continue to be a push from modern feminists to reconsider the bill each year. The most recent state to approve the bill is Virginia, who ratified the ERA in January 2020.

The E.R.A, 1920s and Feminism

When looking back at the women’s rights movement of the 20th century, the Equal Rights Amendment upon its release in 1923 resembles more of a short-lived blip in the larger scale of successful achievements made by suffragettes and feminists. One of the most defining legislations of the 1920s was the 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote. Although women had been involved in politics for centuries, this shifted the political sphere towards women legally for the first time in American history.

The “New Woman” of the 1920s was someone who was independent, free and embodied radical ideas about modern femininity. The ERA in this regard signaled not just a shift in political power, but in social and economic as well. To ignore the ERA as a founding document of both the 1920s women’s movement and second wave feminism is to bypass the first goal set by the National Women’s Party after achieving suffrage. Ending sex based discrimination was a radical belief during this decade, yet activists like Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman continued to push forward the bill despite constant rejection.

The failure of the ERA on the heels of the 19th Amendment is a reminder of the content hurdles women during the 1920s faced. Few success were granted towards feminist causes, leaving progress to be a slow and painful journey. Throughout American history the ERA adapted and changed to fit a 21st century mindset, but the original ideas fortified in 1923 remain protected by time.

Sources

H.J. Res. 75, Proposing an Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, 12/13/1923 https://catalog.archives.gov/id/7452156 

Here’s What to Know About the History of the ERA: https://time.com/5657997/equal-rights-amendment-history/

Kyvig, David E. “Historical Misunderstandings and the Defeat of the Equal Rights Amendment.” The Public Historian 18, no. 1 (1996).

American Civil Liberties Union: Crystal Eastman https://www.aclu.org/issues/free-speech/crystal-eastman-aclus-underappreciated-founding-mother

National Women’s History Museum: Alice Paul https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/alice-paul

Smithsonian: History of the Equal Rights Amendment https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/equal-rights-amendment-96-years-old-and-still-not-part-constitution-heres-why-180973548/

The Fight For Women’s Suffrage https://www.history.com/topics/womens-history/the-fight-for-womens-suffrage

States That Have Not Ratified The ERA https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/31/us/equal-rights-amendment-illinois-states-trnd/index.html

Crystal Eastman. On Women and Revolution. Edited by Blanche Wiesen Cook. New York: Oxford University Press. 1978. 

Lauren S

Senior History and American Studies student at Ramapo College of New Jersey enrolled in Discovering Digital History course taught by Dr. Hajo during Spring 2021.