One of the biggest public protests in the history of the Ku Klux Klan happened on August 8, 1925, when tens of thousands of members paraded down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. It was one of the largest displays of white nationalist power in the 1920s, with estimates ranging from 30,000 to over 50,000 participants¹. Men in white robes and pointed hoods marched in neat columns past the country’s most famous structures for hours in an effort to gain political attention, and legitimacy.The 1925 parade was a deliberate, it was done in a symbolic gesture that claimed Klan had grown to be a powerful cultural and political force in the country.

The development of the Klan through 1920s, led to the preparation and carrying out of the march, and the immediate and long-term effects of the event must all be considered in order to fully comprehend the significance of that day.When the kkk is mentioned the first thought is the United States had recently won the Civil War as well as the nation’s government was working to reconstruct the South and protect the rights of former slaves when the first Klan was founded in the late 1860s.

Many white Southerners fiercely opposed the expansion of African American men’s voting and political office rights. The early Klan swiftly evolved into a dangerous paramilitary organization from a little hidden club. Its members raided both white Republicans who backed Reconstruction policies and Black neighborhoods at night. Within Life of a Klansman: A Family History in White Supremacy by Edward Ball  a Klans men feeling towards African Americans was reveled.They wrecked property, lashed victims, set fire to homes, and occasionally killed those who tried to use their newly acquired political rights.In the summer of 1865, Constant Lecorgne and other white Southerners express discontent with the increasing visibility and behavior of African Americans in New Orleans. They note how former slaves are adopting behaviors previously reserved for whites, contributing to a substantial increase in the black population in the city as many white families leave. The presence of black soldiers patrolling the streets is seen as an insult, erasing the social hierarchy that once existed^{1 2}.Their objective was to reestablish white political dominance in the South by intimidating populations into submission. In order to conceal their identities and instill dread, Klan members frequently pretended to be the ghosts of Confederate soldiers while donning white robes, masks, or costumes³. The federal government finally created legislation referred to as the Enforcement Acts, commonly known as the Ku Klux Klan Acts, which permitted federal forces to arrest members and put an end to Klan activities since this intimidation campaign had become so pervasive. These actions severely undermined the original organization by the early 1870s.

The Beginning

The start to this klan’s history begins in Pulaski, Tennessee, after the close of the American Civil War in 1865, the Ku Klux Klan was founded⁴. In response to the profound social and political transformations taking place throughout the South during Reconstruction, a select few of former Confederate soldiers created it. According to reports, the group began as a covert social organization where members made up complex titles, costumes, and rituals in part for entertainment. But it soon changed into something much more powerful and frightening. Many white Southerners resisted the civil rights benefits that previously enslaved African Americans were receiving, such as the ability to vote and participate in politics. One of the most well-known organizations devoted to upholding white supremacy and opposing federal Reconstruction programs was the Klan.In addition to intimidating Black communities, members donned white robes and hoods to hide their identity while committing violent crimes. The Klan tried to intimidate anyone who advocated for equality and prevent Black people from participating in politics through threats, violence, and killings.

By the late 1860s, this group had expanded over most of the South and was no longer a single, controlled organization but rather a loose network of covert units. The federal government reacted to the Klan’s widespread violence by enacting laws called the Enforcement Acts, often known as the Ku Klux Klan Acts⁵. These laws provided the government more authority to bring charges against members and put an end to the group.By the early 1870s, the Klan had been severely undermined by federal action, which included the deployment of troops in certain regions. During Reconstruction of  America due to the Civil War, the Ku Klux Klan initially started to make appearances. A large portion of its operations had been issued by federal enforcement measures by 1871.Ku Klux Klans come back 1915 and grew throughout the United States throughout the 1920s.⁶ Despite the original organization’s decrease, its ideals and symbolism persisted, and the group would eventually be reborn decades later.However, amid a large growth of racial and nativist concerns, the group was remade at Stone Mountain, Georgia, in 1915. The distinctions between this “Second Klan” and its Reconstruction were that it spread beyond the South into the Midwest, West, and Northeast.In addition to African Americans were the overall target they later expanded its targets to include Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and anybody deemed to be moral “deviants”⁷.

KKK in the Public Eye

Advertising and media influence were two other important strategies employed by the Klan. Newspapers, pamphlets, and advertising from the 1920s presented the Klan as champions of decency, Protestantism, and American customs.When D. W. Griffith created the  film “The Birth of a Nation”, which demonstrated the Klan in a new light during the Reconstruction era.This film illustrated the kkk as protectors of white culture, and had a significant impact on the rebirth. The Klan’s 1920s identity was largely shaped by the film’s dramatic visuals, which included flaming crosses, white robes, and ceremonial practices.The Klan had developed into a large-scale organization by the early 1920s⁸. According to historians, it had between three and five million members nationally at its height. The hiring process was very much planned out when it came to recruitment. Traveling from town to town, sponsored organizers known as “Kleagles” staged protests, taking advantage of anxieties and pointing out social change, labor upheaval, and immigration.The Klan presented itself as a defender of “100 percent Americanism.” Its ideology white, native-born, Protestant supremacy was  created. Racism, anti-Catholicism, antisemitism, Prohibition enforcement, and moral reform were all included in its rising organization.

KKK in the 1920’s

Many people refer to the 1920s as the “Roaring Twenties,” a time of jazz, consumerism, flappers, and flourishing stock markets. Beneath that exterior, however, was a fierce cultural struggle.Widespread feeling was shown in the Immigration Act of 1924, which severely limited migration throughout Southern and Eastern Europe. American society was changing as a result of urbanization and industrialization. African Americans from the remote South were moving to Northern cities as part of the Great Migration.Then later on during the 1920, women were granted the right to vote.Many people viewed these developments as unsettling, especially the white Protestant Americans. The Klan took advantage of people’s discomfort in the matter. It portrayed itself as an interested, brotherly group that upheld traditional values.The power of the Klan was more than just symbolic;It had significant political interest in areas like Colorado and Indiana. Klansmen had become elected into local authorities, senators, and governors. State legislatures, police forces, and school boards were all affected by the elections of klansmen⁹.

But by 1925 scandals started coming to light including Indiana Grand Dragon D.C.’s conviction. Stephenson for murder and rape harmed the organization’s standing this caused a large decline of membership.Despite the decline in memberships the Washington march was meant to show that the Klan was still powerful and cohesive.The choice to stage a large-scale procession in the country’s capital was thoughtful and calculated. Washington was seen as a  representation of political legitimacy, national cohesion, and federal power. The Klan aimed to demonstrate that it was a major American force rather than a fringe one by marching there¹⁰.

Permits were obtained, and transportation from all across the nation was arranged. Delegations traveled by bus and train. Robbed members of crowded hotels as local law police anticipated both fans and  attackers as they prepared for crowd management.This was going to be a totally public event, unlike the covert night trips of the past. The Klan wanted attention¹¹.Calvin Coolidge, the president, refused to examine the procession. The march continued despite his reluctance, which indicated official distance.Participants gathered close to the Capitol grounds early on August 8. According to reports, they formed columns 22 in a row. Patriotic music was performed by bands as Klan emblems were clearly displayed beside American flags.

The procession traveled Pennsylvania Avenue for around three hours. A network of white robes that stretched many blocks was recounted by onlookers. The walkways were lined with spectators. While some simply observed, others applauded or mocked.The fact that many marchers took off their masks was one large action that shocked many which was the removal of their hoods. In contrast to previous Klan secrecy, this gesture implied trust and an idea that these klans men were everyday people. Participants were open to being recognized as members in public.For the most part, everything went according to plan. Barriers were upheld by police. There were a few isolated occurrences, such as things being hurled from windows and obscenities being yelled, but there was no widespread violence.

Heavy rain interfered with scheduled speakers in the afternoon. The Klan’s ceremonial symbolism was reinforced by the illumination of a huge electric cross at a track outside the city.

Newspapers all throughout the nation covered the march in great detail. The spectacle, the visual effect of many white-robed individuals against federal architecture, was frequently the subject of coverage.The philosophy of the Klan was attacked in certain newspapers. Others handled the incident impartially, demonstrating how accepted the group had grown in some quarters.The march was seen as an open rebellion by African American publications. Civil rights activists cautioned that these kinds of protests gave racial intimidation legitimacy.

The event’s symbolic significance was unaffected by the lack of significant bloodshed. It served as an example that organized racists used both fear and civic engagement.The 1925 march revealed a number of important facts, including the fact that Klan was not limited to the South and that its members marched in public, indicating societal acceptability in some areas. The purpose of the event was to sway public opinion and legislators.It represented the conflict between reactionary nationalism and contemporary pluralism.

However, the march also signaled a change. The Klan was scrutinized more because of the very prominence it wanted. Its reputation was damaged by criminal cases and investigative journalism.Decline increased after the march due to public anger and internal malfeasance. By the conclusion of the decade, membership had drastically decreased. National priorities changed with the start of the Great Depression.The mass-membership political force of the early 1920s never recovered the same level of dominance, even if later Klan incarnations would reappear.Later discussions around radical gatherings and freedom of organization have brought the August 8 march back into the public consciousness. Its images still serve as powerful reminders of the extent to which bigotry used to permeate society.The incident highlights a key historical lesson of the 1920s is when social and political circumstances allow, bigotry may grow both in secret and in public¹².

The August 1925 march on Washington by the Ku Klux Klan was more than just a procession. At the peak of the organization’s national authority, it was a staged display of power. It was a reflection of the 1920s’ general concerns about immigration, race, religion, and cultural change.

However, it also portended the demise of the Klan. The organization exposed both its strengths and weaknesses by going public. Scandal, public scrutiny, and changing social events would soon threaten its hegemony.The march continues to serve as a striking example of how democratic society can tolerate, even momentarily legitimate, hate and exclusionary groups. We can gain a better understanding of American pluralism’s resilience and fragility by studying it.

Sources

Ku Klux Klan in Washington, 1921-1925. (n.d.). https://www.historylink.org/file/20718

Ku Klux Klan – New Georgia encyclopedia. (n.d.). https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/ku-klux-klan-in-the-reconstruction-era/m-1264/

Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era – New Georgia encyclopedia. (n.d.-b). https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/ku-klux-klan-in-the-reconstruction-era/

Records of Rights. Ku Klux Klan March (Video), 1925. (n.d.). https://recordsofrights.org/records/388/ku-klux-klan-march-video

The Ku Klux Klan and violence at the polls: The Reconstruction Era: National leader in Civic Education Resources: Bill of Rights Institute. National Leader in Civic Education Resources | Bill of Rights Institute. (n.d.). https://billofrightsinstitute.org/essays/the-ku-klux-klan-and-violence-at-the-polls

KKK meets with Portland leaders, 1921. (n.d.-a). https://www.oregonhistoryproject.org/articles/historical-records/kkk-meets-with-portland-leaders-1921/

Ku Klux Klan. Southern Poverty Law Center. (2025, May 22). https://www.splcenter.org/resources/extremist-files/ku-klux-klan/

A&E Television Networks. (2025, November 4). Ku Klux Klan: Origin, members & facts. History.com. https://www.history.com/articles/ku-klux-klan

Citations

Life of a Klansman: A Family History in White Supremacy by Edward Ball 

More Sources

Gospel according to the Klan : the KKK’s appeal to Protestant America, 1915-1930 / Kelly J. Baker.

Life of a Klansman: A Family History in White Supremacy by Edward Ball 

1. Members in 1925 ︎
2. Quote from Life of a Klansman ︎
3. KKK Attire ︎
4. KKK 1865 ︎
5. Late 1800’s ︎
6. Rise is the KKK ︎
7. Aggression Towards People ︎
8. Remodeling of the KKK ︎
9. KKK in society ︎
10. The negative narrative of the KKK ︎
11. KKK Crime ︎
12. Increase KKK Membership ︎

iwetzel

Ramapo junior majoring in history with hopes of becoming a lawyer

Some of these occupations included opportunities within botany, mathematics, architecture, blacksmithing, cinema operators, miners, artists and so on. With about 280 booths in attendance, over 100 occupations, career paths and opportunities were displayed. These events also intended to raise money for the Women’s Republican Party, several members of the organizing committee were a part of this organization.

The first fair was held from April 18th to the 25th, 1925, however there were years of preparation needed in order to organize such an event, and there are even newspaper clippings from as early as 1923 publishing the fair. Initially the fair was only intended to run for one year however, within the first years’ operation there were close to 160,000-200,000 visitors. The overwhelming number of visitors even caused the fair to expand into surrounding buildings just to adhere to the population. Due to the popularity, the fair then began to run annually until 1928 (see timeline for more specific dates), and  by that time several other foreign countries had joined in the fair’s events. Some of which included Greece, Great Britain and Germany. 

As a whole the fair intended to help women transition from their traditional positions in society, into their new ones. Within previous decades the ‘traditional’ role of women was held within the domestic, they were intended to keep the home clean, cook, tend to children, and any other responsibilities needed. If they were able to work it’s likely that their occupation still fell within the domestic sphere with jobs such as housekeeping often being readily available. However, as the years progressed women began to establish their place within the public sphere and therefore within the rest of typical society. Their jobs began to hold more public positions, which included jobs such as secretaries and salesclerks. However many women were limited in their knowledge of what was available to them, and resulted in many women working within the same jobs. The fair intended to expand women’s horizons and possibilities in their progressive era.

Who organized the fair?

With each fair came endless amounts of boards and committees created in order to ensure a successful and impactful fair. However two women credited with much of the fairs’ success are Helen Marie Bennett and Ruth McCormick.

Helen Marie Bennett: Born September 17th, 1972 in Washington, Iowa, Bennett was an American journalist and businesswoman, she worked for the Chicago Record and authored several books including ‘Women and Work.’ She also served as manager of the Chicago Bureau of Occupations, which essentially where college-educated women went to seek employment, the bureau acted as a sort of guide for these women. Despite all this Bennett is most known for being a part of the committee that organized all four woman’s fairs.  

Ruth McCormick: Born March 27th, 1880 in Cleveland Ohio, McCormick went on to become a very successful politician, activist, and publisher. Despite her familial wealth McCormick chose to live within the University of Chicago Settlement, which introduced her to working women and exposed her to the issues they faced. This in turn made McCormick a better writer and publicist at the Chicago Tribune, which she worked at very early in her career..  She was also a member of the Welfare Committee, the Women’s City Club of Chicago, she served as a chairwoman for the women’s welfare section of the National Civil Federation, and was an incredibly active member of the Progressive Party, she even went on to win a seat within the party in 1912. Her husband served one term in the US House of Representatives, and was Senate to Illinois in 1918, very often McCormick is credited with her husband’s political success and she eventually served as chairman to the women’s first Republic National Committee. However after the death of her husband in 1925 McCormick dedicated herself to the Woman’s Fairs. Where she went on to serve as a general executive and as a member on the Board of Directors. Even after the death of her husband McCormick was still incredibly active in politics, going on to become the Republican representative for Illinois from 1929-1931. 

The Influences of the Woman’s World’s Fair

The Fair was the result of a multitude of ever-developing factors within the late 19th and early 20th century. These factors and events challenged the traditional gender norms set within society and led to women gaining more freedom within society and their everyday lives. 

The 1893 World’s Fair

The 1893 World’s Fair, which is also referred to as the Columbian Exposition, was the first ever world’s fair held in Chicago. The Fair was meant to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus’ arrival in the new world. The centerpiece of such a celebration was over 600 acres of land from the Frederick Law Olmsted Jackson Park were carved out and rebuilt specifically for this exposition. The fair grounds, which would later be referred to as The White City, aimed to demonstrate an ideal and almost euphoric United States. The city was specifically designed and covered in a white plaster, therefore giving it the nickname of White City, all of the buildings were also a specific height in order to give a more uniformed look, and at the center of the entire fair was a large water pool, meant to be representative of the voyage Columbus took. Due to the time and care put into the architectural aspects of the fair, it now serves as a great influence to Chicago architects. Over the six month residency the fair sought to host millions of visitors, from all walks of life, and from all over the world, over 46 nations participated in this fair. As a whole this fair served as an exposition for innovations in architecture, engineering, transportation, weaponry, art, and so much more. This specific fair also greatly impacted the American’s perception of beauty, since it exposed Americans to new cultural aspects from other countries.

 Overall the fair greatly impacted American culture, economics and even politics, it was meant to demonstrate the United States as being wealthy and progressive, however the fair truly exposed several flaws within American society. 

Every aspect of the 1893 World’s Fair was specifically designed, which is demonstrated within the very architecture of the fair. It would therefore make sense that the fair was also specifically designed to exclude those typically oppressed within this society, including women.  Although there was a Women’s Building within the fair’s design, it was on the very outskirts of the fair’s main buildings, and only a fraction of the size. Aside from this building there was a clear lack of representation of Women within the fair. Due to this many thought that a fair specifically tailored for and representing women was greatly needed, this idea then snowballed into what is now known as the Woman’s World’s Fairs. 

The Women’s Suffrage and Rights Movement 

The Women’s Suffrage movement stemmed from the women’s rights movements within the mid-19th century. At first these movements demonstrated several different goals, however despite this several leaders within the movement decided that gaining the right to vote would be most important. It would open doors to several other opportunities women were seeking within society, however disputes over how to gain the vote caused many divisions. Although historians tend to paint the women’s suffrage movement as being a part of the very early 20th century, the first recorded attempt at a national movement began in Seneca Falls, New York in July of 1848. After several other movements, demonstrations, and petitions, the division over how women would gain the right to vote eventually split the movement into two groups, the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). Around the 1890s the two groups realized their division only impeded on progress and the two combined to great the National American Women Suffrage Association (NAWSA), Thirty years after the groups united an incredible stride in the movement was made when Jeannette Rankin was elected to Congress as the Republican Representative of Montana. Rankin was an active member in the suffrage and rights movements, and used her platform to support the movement, her support was quickly felt in 1917 when she testified to Congress on the movements in order to keep it on the agenda. Soon a Committee on Women’s Suffrage was created in order to consider bills related to women’s voting rights. After two years of hearings, lobbying, and meetings Congress finally passed a bill on women’s voting rights July 7th 1919, and just over a year later the bill was officially adopted into the Constitution. 

Although this was an incredible achievement for the women’s suffrage movement, it still excluded a great deal of American citizens. Specifically African American men and women, it would be almost 40 years before their rights were granted. All in all the exclusion of this population of Americans demonstrated the country’s failed Reconstruction movement. 

This movement greatly influenced the development of the Women’s World’s Fairs, many members of the organizing committee, including Ruth McCormick, were at the forefront of the Suffrage and Rights movements. The results of these movements, including the right to vote, opened the door to many women and gave them access to the public sphere. However, even though many women were now able to be within the public sphere, they were still greatly limited in what they could do occupationally speaking. The fair was greatly needed in order to demonstrate to women what opportunities were available to them within this new public sphere. 

The New Woman 

Although the late 1800s and early 1900s demonstrate great times of progression for women’s equality, there is no surprise that older generations often pushed back against these ideas. Often the new and progressive women within society were referred to as the ‘New Woman,’ and as positive as it sounds it was typically meant as a sort of insult. The ‘New Woman’ typically referred to the younger generation of women, who demonstrated feminist ideals and who are now cultural icons. These women, often referred to as ‘flappers’ were actually just working class women. They were women who worked, were financially independent, voted, and spent their nights out on the town, however most importantly they were women who spent money free from male influence. So it’s no surprise that these new women were typically welcomed in urban environments such as Chicago. 

The Romanticization of the New Woman 

Often when eras of great progression, such as the women’s suffrage and rights movements, get romanticized, and many of the negative aspects are glossed over. First off, the jobs that became readily available for women were smaller-scale jobs men took on to start their climb within their careers, like salesclerks or secretaries. These jobs were then feminized and seen as lesser, therefore they were only paid about 42-63% of what men would make in that exact position. This pay gap was even greater for women of minority groups. Many women also worked within the same positions, and although the Women’s World Fair presented many opportunities, they were mainly directed toward white educated women. 

The Working Woman in the Media

Another interesting notion to keep in mind is the role that the media has played in encouraging the development of the New Women and of women within the public sphere. Of course the economy is going to encourage women to work, since in the end it meant they would receive more money. Between the 1900s and 1930s representation of the working women increased dramatically. At first women were presented as doing very simple jobs within offices and stores, but more importantly it was presented that the workplace was an environment in which women would be able to meet their husbands. As the years went on, and working women in media became a natural sight, the media began reflecting the realities of working women’s lives. Representing the mundane, repetitiveness of their lives.

Overall the development of the working women, the new women, and of flappers came as a direct result of the 19th amendment and directly influenced the women’s world’s fair. Although women began to enter the public sphere they were still very limited in what they could do, the fair acted as a networking agent for them. And although these were great times of progression it is extremely important to understand how romanticized this era is and how many negative details are simply glossed over. 

Conclusion

As a whole the Woman’s World’s Fair stood as a testament to the progressive nature of the early 20th century. The event, created by women and for women, provided them with access to the opportunities available to them. Achievements within several different fields were proudly displayed and hundreds of booths demonstrated new career paths women of the era could take up. The creation of this fair was the direct result of a multitude of events, including the limited representation in the1893 Columbian Exposition, the strides made within the Suffrage and Woman’s Rights movements, and the active development of what is now known as the ‘New Woman.’ Typically this era of history is presented as being extremely progressive, and the events of the World’s Fairs (both the Columbian and the Woman’s) only further emphasized this idea since they were intended to demonstrate progression in a culture, engineering, and many other topics. However it is important to keep in mind the large population of Americas that were outright discriminated against during these fairs. It’s also important to note that even women who were able to be a part of the public sphere through these job opportunities were still discriminated against and even sexualized in some aspects. Ripples of these misogynist, and racist ideas are demonstrated in the decades after the fairs, and aspects of such are even felt within modern day society. With any event in history it’s important to understand not only the context of the event, but the multifaceted sides of the event as well. By understanding this one can truly grasp the importance and influence that major events, such as the Woman’s World’s Fair, had on society and how it affects modern society. 

Timeline:

Citations:

““The New Woman” | US History II (American Yawp).” Courses.lumenlearning.com, courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ushistory2ay/chapter/the-new-woman-2/.

“Chicago Architecture Center.” Chicago Architecture Center, 2024, www.architecture.org/online-resources/architecture-encyclopedia/worlds-columbian-exposition-of-1893.

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Hill And Wang, 1995.

Estherwang. “The 1925 Woman’s World’s Fair in Chicago – Chicago History Museum.” Chicago History Museum, 22 Apr. 2025, www.chicagohistory.org/the-1925-womans-worlds-fair-in-chicago/. Accessed 18 Mar. 2026.

Ganz, Cheryl. The 1933 Chicago World’s Fair : A Century of Progress. Urbana, Univ. Of Illinois Press, 2012.

   Grossman, Ron. “Chicago’s Society Women Threw a World’s Fair of Their Own in the 1920s to Showcase Female Talent.” Chicago Tribune, March 11, 2024. https://www.chicagotribune.com/2024/03/03/womens-world-fair-chicago/

  Miller, Taylor Jade. “New Women, New Opportunities: The New Women of Chicago’s World’s Fairs, 1893-1934,” 2018

“MCCORMICK, Ruth Hanna | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives.” History.house.gov, history.house.gov/People/Detail/17791.

Patrick, Jeanette. “Ruth Hanna McCormick.” National Women’s History Museum, 2016, www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/ruth-hanna-mccormick-simms.

 Scott. “Woman’s Part at the World’s Fair, Part I.” Chicago’s 1893 Worlds Fair, April 2, 2024. https://worldsfairchicago1893.com/2019/03/01/womans-part-at-the-worlds fair-part-1/. 

“The House Supports Women’s Suffrage, 1917–1919 | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives.” History.house.gov, history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/WIC/Historical-Essays/No-Lady/House-Supports-Suffrage/.

“The World’s Columbian Exposition: The White City and Fairgrounds – Smarthistory.” Smarthistory.org, smarthistory.org/white-city-and-fairgrounds/.

Tracey Jean Boisseau, and Abigail M Markwyn. Gendering the Fair : Histories of Women and Gender at World’s Fairs. Urbana, University Of Illinois Press, 2010.

Weimann, Jeanne Madeline. The Fair Women: The Story of the Woman’s Building World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago 1983. Chicago, IL: Chicago, III : Academy Chicago, 1981. 

“Woman’s World’s Fair, 1925.” Chicagohistory.org, 2026, encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1374.html. Accessed 18 Mar. 2026.

Suggested Resources:

The Chicago History Museum

The Chicago Digital Collections

The Chicago Architecture Center

The Chicago Tribune

madison

Madison is currently a senior at the Ramapo College of New Jersey, who took this course in the spring of 2026. She has a major in Visual Arts, with a concentration in Art History, along with a double minor in Anthropology and Museum and Exhibitions Studies. After graduating Madison hopes to continue her education in order to become an Archaeologist or Museum Educator.

In 1924 the United States passed the Johnson-Reed Immigration Act that drastically decreased the number of immigrants allowed into the U.S. through the implementation of a quota system. The Immigration Act established both the Visa process and was the beginning stricter border security protocols being introduced. The quota system disproportionately favored Western countries in Europe as countries such as the United Kingdom received higher quotas, whereas Southern and Eastern European countries received stricter quotas. The document “Letter Regarding the Immigration Act of 1924” was written by Portugeese-American Manuel S. Amaral in 1925 as a response to the quota set on immigrants from Portugal. The Immigration Act granted Portugal a total of 440 immigrants per fiscal year to be allowed to enter the United States. Authored on behalf of 200,000 Portugeese-American citizens living in California, Amaral requests the U.S. government amend the Immigration Act to allow more Portugeese to enter the country. The letter was sent to James J. Davis who served as the U.S. Secretary of Labor from 1921 to 1930. Under this role Davis was responsible for carrying out the actions established by the Immigration Act. 

I selected this document because of its significance to the Immigration Act of 1924 and showcases how American immigrants resisted the act throughout the 1920s. The letter offers insight into the Portugeese-American experience in California and presents arguments against the quota act through the lense of immigrant farmers out West.

Document

Document Text

Hon. James J. Davis,¹

Dept. of Labor,

Washington, D.C.

November 25, 1925.

Dear Sirs:

In the name of 200,000 Portugese people, citizens of California, we beg to enlist your endeavour to have amended the Immigration Act, which limits the admission into this country to 500 Portugese each year. Or if this means of solving the pressing problem be impracticable to find some other way to overcome the hardship which this limitation  places upon one or more of California’s leading industries.

We beg to remind you that approximately 90 per cent of the Portuguese population in California came from the Azores and Madeira Islands. They emigrated to California to make their homes, rear their families, live the lives of good citizens and to educate their children to follow in their footsteps. They are an industrious, frugal, home-loving people and comprise and one of the most useful and patriotic elements of our composite population. There is not a more law-abiding class of citizens in our State or one that is more uniformly contributive to substantial development of its basic industries and the spiritual, social and material advancement of the commonwealth.

In the great Valleys of the State, in the foothills and plains, the Portuguese people will be found successfully engaged in diversified agriculture, truck farming, dairying and horticulture. They have reclaimed the virgin land and developed it to that high state of productivity which contributes so largely to the wealth of the State and the Nation. They have clung to the soil, and constitute one of the greatest and most dependable factors in the conservation of the most important of all California industries- the farm.

Many of the largest dairies in the State are operated by the Portugese who are naturally adapted to that line of work, as experience proves. There are approximately 3,500 Portugese dairies in California and the labor involved is in large measure performed by the families  of the owners. In the face of existing labor conditions, it would be utterly impossible to replace these workers with other help. Americans of other racial extractions cannot be induced to labor in the various agricultural pursuits, especially in the arduous work of the dairy, despite the high wages prevailing. This is patent to anyone familiar with the situation in all lines of agricultural operation.

With the immigration quota as low as that now permitted to Portugal, our Portuguese farmers and dairymen find it impossible to overcome the losses and wastage of the necessary help to continue their business, from other available sources.

We appeal, therefore, to out California representatives in the Congress to use their best endeavors to relieve a condition that threatens thousands of out Portugese farmers- these industrious and constructive citizens from The Azores and Madeira Islands- and their families, with financial ruin and a loss annually to the State and Nation of millions of dollars. Whether this relief comes from the admittance of more willing and competent workers in this field from Portugal or through other means is immaterial so long as the essential objective is attained.

May we ask you, therefore, to give this vital problem to the best interests of the foremost industry of California the serious consideration that it deserves?

Respectfully yours,

Mr Manuel S. Amaral

Citations and Sources

Letter to James J. Davis, Department of Labor, from Portuguese Citizens of California Regarding the Immigration Act of 1924; 11/25/1925, Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, Record Group 85; National Archives Building, Washington, D.C. https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/letter-immigration-act-1924

The Immigration Act of 1924(brief overview): https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act

Lauren S

Senior History and American Studies student at Ramapo College of New Jersey enrolled in Discovering Digital History course taught by Dr. Hajo during Spring 2021.