Atlantic City & 1920s Tourism

Atlantic City, one of New Jersey’s most famous coastal vacation spots, was established in 1854 when a track was created from Camden, NJ, crossing the Delaware River from Philadelphia to the shore. This resulted in a major increase in tourism. As tourism boomed, a town was built behind the beach and wooden hotels began to line up the area. This increase of tourism left many to see profitable business.

Atlantic City developed the reputation of being both a restful vacation destination and a lively spot for amusements. The city’s signature rolling chairs started off as mere wheelchairs for visitors to use from hotel to hotel. It gradually evolved into a rental business as others joined in. By 1892, rolling chairs had become a popular trend, and by the 1920s, they were widely used. The city officially became a place where middle class people could pretend to be rich, with show business attractions becoming their popular source of entertainment.² Business leaders began to build luxurious spots for middle class tourists, and by the 1920s, the middle class had come to dominate the new consumer culture. This new middle class, typically men, sought personal satisfaction in leisure and consumption.³ It was this very class that motivated local businessmen to create one of America’s most famous pageants, the “Miss America” pageant.

The Very First Miss America Pageant in 1921

The 1920s marked a decade when businessmen sought to rise into a more idealized position. Even small businessmen made an effort to present themselves as dedicated to civic life.⁴ In fact, it was local small businessmen who created the pageant. The “Miss America Pageant” owes its existence to a man named Conrad Eckholm, owner of a hotel named the Monticello. He proposed to have the Atlantic City Business Men’s League sponsor a week-long event that extended the Labor Day weekend. This proposal’s goal was to benefit smaller side hotels that were not on the boardwalk, including his own. They donated around $5,916 towards this event and named it the “Fall Frolic of 1920.”.⁵ It would not yet feature the beauty pageant until the following year. Instead, they hosted an hour-long “Rolling Chair Parade”. After the 1920 event, an Atlantic City newspaperman, Harry Finely, suggested a beauty contest to be added to the next Fall Frolic. When gathered in a meeting with the city’s managers, he proposed that newspapers throughout many cities should run the contest. This contest would choose the “most popular young woman” in their respective city. To create a more “appropriate” way to host a beauty contest for the middle class, newspapers helped by having people send in photos of contestants instead of letting contestants sign up themselves. Liking the idea, the President of the Chamber Commerce, Sam P. Leeds, presented Finley’s proposal to the Hotelsman Association. They agreed to have these women compete against other Inter-City contestants at the Frolic. Many East Coast newspapers ran this popularity contest, calling it the “Inter-City Beauties” contest. Cities like Pittsburgh, Washington D.C., Baltimore, Philadelphia, Jersey City, and Newark held summer events where women were judged on their beauty and impression. The winners from each city would then win a free trip to Atlantic City to attend the Fall Frolic. On July 24, 1921, The Washington Post announced the winners of their contest, with the first prize winner being sixteen year old Margaret Gorman.⁶ On September 2, 1921, the Camden Daily Courier announced Kathryne Gearson as the winner to represent South Jersey. She would later be given the title “Miss Camden” for the pageant.⁷ Other cities chose their own winners. The women to be sent to Atlantic City were Miss Philadelphia, Nellie Orr, Miss Ocean City, Hazel Harris, Miss Pittsburgh, Thelma Matthews, and Miss Harrisburg, Emma Pharo.

The official pageant began on September 7th, 1921. Hudson Maxim, popularly known as the inventor of smokeless powder, played a character named “King Neptune”. He arrived with a group of “mermaids”, the Inter-City contest winners. They all arrived at the Million Dollar Pier for the opening ceremony. King Neptune and the Inter-City women paraded on a seashell float on the boardwalk. The women later visited the Keith’s Theatre, where a crowd and a panel of judges examined and questioned them. The audience’s favorite was Washington D.C’s, Margaret Gorman, earning her the first trophy. In the evening, Neptune and the women watched a performance by “Dawson’s Dancing Dolls”. The public watched the show with the contestants in full view. At the end of the first day, Neptune and the women attended a costumed ballroom event called “The Frolique”. They sat on a throne display, watching the event take place.⁹

The next day of the pageant featured the Bathers’ Revue, a series of bathing suit contests. All participants and visitors were required to wear one-piece bathing suits. Around one thousand people showed up to watch the Rolling Chair Parade and beauty contests. The Bathers Revue beauty pageant had two sub-categories: “Amateur” and “Professional”.¹⁰ The professional category included professional actresses, dancers, models and swimmers. Across four contests, women competed for the titles of “Most Beautiful” and “Most Beautiful Bathing Beauty.” The overall winner would receive the ultimate prize, the “Golden Mermaid Trophy”, and be crowned the first “Miss America”. Miss Washington, Margaret Gorman, won both the Inter-City Beauty Amateur title and first place in the Inter-City Bather’s Revue, while Miss Philadelphia, Nellie Orr, came in second.

List of Finalists:

Gorman, Saunders, and Salisbury competed against each other for the ultimate title of “Most Beautiful Bathing Girl in America.” A panel of judges and the audience chose the winner. Since the audience favored Gorman the most, she won the “Golden Mermaid Trophy,” earning her title as the very first “Miss America.”. After her victory, reporters and photographers surrounded her as she attended parties held in her honor. The pageant became a huge success, motivating its organizers to host it again the following years.

The 1920s Pageants, Controversies, & the Women’s-Religious Protests

The pageant was so successful that the number of days, activities, attendees, and contestants increased each year. The number of contestants grew from just eight to eighty-three by 1924.¹³ In addition, new rules were added. In the early years, a winning Miss America could reenter the pageant in order to fight for her right to maintain her status. However, after Ruth Malcomson, Miss America 1924, criticized the fairness of allowing professional women to compete, new rules were introduced prohibiting any past winner from reentering. Another rule added was that married women could not become contestants in the pageant. The pageant never explicitly enforced this rule, assuming that this was something the public knew to follow. However, after the discovery of a married contestant, the rule was explicitly put in place. Another change was the audience’s power. Gorman won her place as Miss America with the overwhelming support of the audience. This changed in 1922 when the audience’s votes were eliminated. This granted judges the sole decision of crowning the winner. In addition, a new category, the “evening gown” competition, was introduced to the pageant. By 1923, the pageant gained national recognition, and newspapers all over the country covered its events. Not only did the pageant become more popular, its winners did as well. Mary Campbell, Miss America 1922 and 23, received offers to be in films, musicals, and vaudeville shows. However, she refused these offers to return to school. Miss America 1925, Fay Lanphier, was the first to be in a Hollywood movie and profit from her own tour. This demonstrates that as the pageant grew in popularity, it became more commercialized. It was so commercialized that by 1925, contestants were asked to sign an agreement to appear in a Hollywood film if they won. Contestants also began to promote products on their floats. Pageant promoters, however, did not look favorably upon this. Even so, the 1926 Miss America, Norma Smallwood, made around $100,000 in product endorsements. She would go on to earn a salary that surpassed that of President Coolidge himself.

Although the pageant gained massive popularity, it also sparked controversy amongst religious and women’s groups. In the 1920s, Americans struggled to adjust to modern life while also trying to keep their traditional beliefs and values. Religion was losing its influence on Americans, and Protestantism was no longer a dominant force shaping cultural norms.¹⁴ Religious leaders began to view the popular culture of the 1920s, shaped by materialism and the pursuit of wealth, as a decline in religious values. An example of the “moral decline” that religious groups were concerned with was the display of the female body, especially through bathing suits. They viewed bathing suits and uncovered knees as immoral and improper. By protesting, clergymen contributed to the creation of beach rules that banned or regulated bathing suits.¹⁵ Atlantic City was not an exception. The first year the pageant took place, there were restrictions on bare knees and skin-tight bathing suits. However, the competitions were temporarily exempt from these restrictions. This contributed to the protests against the pageant. In September of 1923, The Ocean City Camp Meeting Association held an annual reunion. A group of people, including a preacher, created a resolution condemning the bathers’ review of the pageant. The resolution stated “The danger lies in taking girls of tender years and robbing them in attire that transgresses the limit of morality”.¹⁶ Besides religious motivations, feminism also played a role. While many might assume that feminism would oppose restrictions on women’s choices of clothes, a more traditional form of feminism supported these restrictions. Feminists argued that the pageant reduced women to their physical appearance, encouraged rivalry, and exploited them for profit. On April 18, 1924, the New York Times reported that the Y.W.C.A created a resolution that condemned the pageant. They claimed it corrupted women of “pure womanhood” by encouraging vanity and envy.¹⁷ In October of 1924, the Pennsylvania Federation of Women’s Clubs presented a statement that denounced beauty pageants. They encouraged women’s educational and religious groups to do the same. The year of 1927 experienced greater opposition. On September 29, 1927, the National Council of Catholic Women presented a statement that stated the pageant “exploited the feminine beauty of young women for financial gain”.¹⁸ They accused parents of entering their daughters for money and urged other Catholics to oppose these pageants. In November of 1927, the Atlantic County Federation of Church Women protested the pageant and the commercialization of the boardwalk. They called it an immoral influence on women and a barrier to the public’s free use of the area. The pageant organizers tried to ignore these protests, however, they decided to temporarily discontinue the pageant in fear it could damage Atlantic City’s reputation.

Miss America & The Flapper

The “New Woman” of the 1920s symbolized the “modern woman” who entered positions that challenged traditional female roles. They entered the public sphere and exhibited changing sexual attitudes. Similar to the push-back from religious groups against a modern secular society, the modern “New Woman” also faced resistance. In addition to religious controversy, the “Miss America” pageant faced criticism for the commercialization that some of the women became involved in. In its later years, it opened opportunities for women to earn their own money in product endorsements, tours, and even Hollywood films. This being a part of the symbol of the “New Woman”, it led to controversy. Even in its beginnings in 1921, it faced similar criticisms. In August 13, 1921, The New York Times reported that an Oklahoma Congressman sought a beauty pageant ban, stating that “Modern women were thinking more of their looks than of their home”.¹⁹ Despite this, the Miss America pageant had actually served as a form of resistance to the “New Woman,” particularly the image of “The Flapper”. Flappers were young, single women who defied Victorian constraints by rejecting corsets, wearing bobbed hair, dressing in shorter, less shaped skirts, applying darker makeup, and smoking. To combat this image, pageant promoters were interested in promoting girls who resembled a more traditional “Victorian-like” kind of womanhood. These women were subservient, and demonstrated capability of being a good wife, homemaker, and mother. Contestants were expected to show no interest in pursuing public careers, instead valuing marriage. Pageant judges and audiences favored contestants who acted and dressed in a way that differed from flappers. Contestants were often accompanied by their mothers and acted surprised in their success in order to maintain an “innocent” image. Additionally, contestants with unbobbed, conservatively styled hair and no dark makeup were praised.²⁰

Despite the festive atmosphere of Atlantic City, contestants were portrayed as church-attending women who abstained from gambling, smoking, and drinking alcohol. Promoters were eager to present the pageant as “above” these vices. These portrayals were essential to the image of “Miss America”, representing the ideal of what they believed the American woman in the 1920s should look like. “Miss America” winners of the 1920s, who possessed these characteristics, were often reported in newspapers. First Miss America, Margaret Gorman, was praised for “possessing the basic virtues of American womanhood”.²¹ Similarly, the 1922-23 winner, Mary Campbell, was admired for her “innocent, wholesome, and traditional” demeanor. The 1924 winner, Ruth Malcomson, stood out for rarely wearing makeup and never having visited a hairdresser. The 1927 winner, Lois Delander, was recognized for her knowledge of Bible verses, along with her refusal to use makeup or tobacco. The Washington Post reported that she was an “Unbobbed high school student.”. The New Britain Herald reported that the 1925 winner, Fay Lanphier, had “blonde unbobbed hair and did not engage in smoking cigarettes,”. The New York Times reported that the 1926 winner, Norma Smallwood, was a “Western girl whose hair was unbobbed.”.²² Overall, pageant promoters wished for these women to represent traditional, Victorian-like ideals of femininity, hoping they would serve as models for other women.

Miss America & The Suffragette

While the “Miss America” pageant openly defied the image of the “modern” flapper, it also subtly defied another kind of “New Woman” of the 1920s, the woman in politics. The concept of a “pageant” has ties to women’s groups of the 19th century, including reform groups, church groups, and schoolteachers. These groups practiced “pageantry” as a form of public entertainment to promote their movements and goals. As early as 1848, the first Women’s Rights convention in Seneca Falls featured elements of pageantry to showcase women’s unity within the movement.²⁵ One of the primary goals of Women’s Rights advocates was the right to vote, known as suffrage. These “suffragettes” were inspired during their travels to England by the pageants hosted by British suffragists. The National American Woman’s Suffrage Association began hosting their own pageants in 1908 with the largest being held in 1913. The National Woman Suffrage Parade & Pageant in Washington D.C. was hosted the day before Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration. The pageant celebrated women’s contributions to democracy and society by dressing up as figures that represented “Lady Columbia”, “Liberty”, “Justice”, and “Peace”.²⁶ These suffragettes sought to raise awareness of their goals, celebrate their unity, and demonstrate their belief in women’s moral value to the vote. Many of these suffragettes would remain politically active in the 1920s, contributing to the presence of women in politics and reforms. They continued the practice of political pageantry through the “Equal Rights” pageants hosted by the Woman’s Party. The Miss America pageant incorporated elements that resembled these suffrage pageants. Not only was it also labeled a “pageant”, the Miss America pageant followed the suffrage tradition of holding parades. Contestants even wore sashes with the names of their states or cities, closely resembling those worn by suffragettes.²⁷ However, instead of promoting social progress and intellectualism, the “Miss America” pageant was based on beauty as defined by the male and public population. Rather than women’s unity under a shared movement, it encouraged competition. Lastly, instead of raising funds for a cause, it focused on commercialization and entertainment. The pageant acted as a reaction to, or alternative version of, the more political pageants, instead promoting a “less threatening” subservient image of women.

Significance

I chose the first Miss America pageant because I was unaware that its origins trace back to the 1920s. After its success in 1921, it quickly evolved from a small, city-based competition into a nationally recognized event attracting participants from across the country. Newspapers, and later radios, covered the pageants. While it became an anticipated event, it received backlash.

At first, the “Miss America” pageant seems like a trivial event. However, it can enhance our understanding of the decade. The first pageants of the 1920s embodied both the stereotypical image of the decade as one of entertainment, fun, and consumerism and as a response to, or even a challenge against, the changing cultural norms of the era. The pageant ironically included elements that strayed from the Victorian image while also reinforcing it. Religious-Women’s groups viewed the display of the female body for competition as immoral. To the perspective of many, it encouraged women to prioritize their beauty over other aspects of their life. It also served as a gateway to wealth, (an image often associated with the decade today) which was seen as immoral by religious groups. It reinforced older values by rejecting one of the most recognizable symbols of the decade, “The Flapper”. The pageant attempted to reject this “new modern woman” by rewarding contestants who resembled her as little as possible. It also provided a version of pageantry that did not showcase women and their social-political interests. 

The controversies that it experienced still remain relevant today, as the backlash seen in the 1920s resurfaced in the late 1960s and beyond. Women’s Liberation feminists argued that the pageant focused on “problematic beauty standards” and reduced women to their physical appearance.

Bibliography

Simon, Bryant. Boardwalk of Dreams: Atlantic City and the Fate of Urban America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Watson, E., ed. “There She Is, Miss America”: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.

Riverol, Armando. Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television. “Chapter 2: The Frolicking ’20s,” 10-26.

Watson, Elwood, and Darcy Martin. “The Miss America Pageant: Pluralism, Femininity, and Cinderella All in One.” Journal of Popular Culture 34, no. 1 (June 1, 2000): 105–26. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.2000.3401_105.x. 

“History.” Miss America. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://missamerica.org/history/.

 Latham, Angela J. 1995. “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity.’” Journal of Popular Culture 29 (3): 149–67. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.1995.00149.x. 

Chapman, Mary. 1999. “Women and Masquerade in the 1913 Suffrage Demonstration in Washington.” Amerikastudien 44 (3): 343–55. https://research-ebsco-com.library2.ramapo.edu:2443/linkprocessor/plink?id=755f8783-eb91-350f-b634-02d97c8d0cb5. 

Moore, Sarah J. 1997. “Making a Spectacle of Suffrage: The National Women Suffrage..” Journal of American Culture (01911813) 20 (1): 89. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734x.1997.00089.x.https://research-ebsco-com.library2.ramapo.edu:2443/c/7frumr/viewer/pdf/ve7e6ydlxr 

Jones, Jennifer. 1998. “The Beauty Queen as Deified Sacrificial Victim.” Theatre History Studies 18 (June): 99–106. https://research-ebsco-com.library2.ramapo.edu:2443/linkprocessor/plink?id=3696314d-a08a-3a3a-9756-878c3fa4a653.

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang, 1995. 

“Here Are the Winners in the Beauty Contest.” The Washington Post (1877–1922), July 24, 1921. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection, pg. 5. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress.

“Camden Girl Is Chosen as Miss South Jersey for Pa. Geanta T Shore.” Camden Daily Courier, September 2, 1921. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress.

“Seeks Beauty Contest Ban: Oklahoma Congressman Says Women Like Looks More Than Men.” New York Times, August 13, 1921, 13. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times.

“ATTACKS BATHING REVIEW.: PREACHER SAYS ATLANTIC CITY EVENT ENDANGERS YOUTHFUL MORALS.” New York Times (1923–), September 11, 1923. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/attacks-bathing-review/docview/103107222/se-2.

“Y.W.C.A. Opens War on Beauty Contest; Calls Atlantic City Parade Peril to Girls.” New York Times (1923–), April 18, 1924. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/y-w-c-opens-war-on-beauty-contest-calls-atlantic/docview/103426053/se-2.

“New Queen of Beauty Has Not Bobbed Hair.” New Britain Herald, New Britain, CT, September 12, 1925. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82014519/1925-09-12/ed-1/seq-1/

“Western Girl Wins Miss America Title: Miss Norma Smallwood of Tulsa.” Special to The New York Times. New York Times (1923–), September 11, 1926. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection, p. 15.

“CATHOLIC WOMEN’S RESOLUTION BANS BEAUTY CONTESTS: PROPOSALS THAT ATTACK EXHIBITION OF GIRLS BACKED BY 100. DELINQUENCY CITED; PARENTS BLAMED LEADERS IN WELFARE WORK SAY THEY FIND MENACE IN PULCHRITUDE SHOWS. CATHOLIC WOMEN HIT BEAUTY CONTESTS.” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 27, 1927. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/catholic-womens-resolution-bans-beauty-contests/docview/149667923/se-2.

“Catholic Women Adopt Ban on Beauty Contests: Exploitation of ‘Feminine Pulchritude’ for ‘Commercial Purposes’ is Denounced in Resolution Approved Unanimously by National Council Convention. CATHOLIC WOMEN BAN BEAUTY COMPETITIONS.” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 29, 1927. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/catholic-women-adopt-ban-on-beauty-contests/docview/149693598/se-2.

“Miss Illinois, Blonde, Wins Beauty West Contest: 16-Year-Old Unbobbed …” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 10, 1927. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection.

Paul Thompson. Literary Suffragettes. [ca. 1913]. Topical Press Agency, Hulton Archive, Getty Images. Photograph.

L & M Ottenheimer, publisher. Liberty and Her Attendants – (Suffragette’s Tableau) in Front of Treasury Bldg. March 3, 1913 – Washington, D.C. National Woman’s Party Records. Library of Congress.

R.C. Maxwell Company. BOARDWALK. [CROWD LOOKING AT CAMERA], EASTER, MARCH 27, 1921. Maxwell No. 1555. R.C. Maxwell Company Records. David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University.

Bettmann Archive. Contestants at the 1921 Pageant; Miss Atlantic City (Florence Burke), Miss Philadelphia, and Miss Washington, DC. [1921]. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. Miss America 1927 Lois Delander of Joliet, Illinois. Photograph. 1927.

Bettmann Archive. Large Crowd During Street Parade. Original Caption: Atlantic City: Neptune and Miss America in the parade. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. Pageant Attendees Posing Outdoors. Mr. & Mrs. Howard Chandler Christie & Miss Gorman at the Atlantic City Pageant. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. Beauty Pageant Winner and Mythological Accomplice. Original Caption: Atlantic City, N. J.: Miss Margaret Gorman (Miss America) with Hudson Maxim as “Neptune” at the Atlantic City Beauty Pageant. Photograph.

Bettmann Archive. “Miss America Contestants Pose for Photograph.” Photograph.

Featured Image: Bettmann Archive. “American Beauty Pageants Winners. Far left Miss Mary Katherine Campbell (retained title); far right, Miss Margaret Gorman, Miss America in 1921 in gowns.” Photograph. Circa 1922. Bettmann Collection via Getty Images.

Additional Sources

“1920s.” Maxwell Did It!: Photographing the Atlantic City Boardwalk, 1920s-1950s. Duke University Libraries. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://exhibits.library.duke.edu/exhibits/show/maxwell/1920s.

“Beauty Pageant Origins and Culture.” American Experience. PBS. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/missamerica-beauty-pageant-origins-and-culture/.”

“Woman Suffrage Pageants.” National Park Service. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/suffrage-pageants.htm

PBS. “Miss America Timeline.” American Experience. Last modified March 3, 2025. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/miss-america-timeline/.

“History.” Miss America. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://missamerica.org/history/.

Ware, Susan. “Sashes and Suffrage.” New York Times, August 15, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/15/opinion/sashes-suffrage-19th-amendment.html.

Citations

1. R.C. Maxwell Company, BOARDWALK. [CROWD LOOKING AT CAMERA], EASTER, MARCH 27, 1921, Maxwell No. 1555, R.C. Maxwell Company Records, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University. ︎
2. Bryant Simon, Boardwalk of Dreams: Atlantic City and the Fate of Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 19-24. ︎
3. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 85-86. ︎
4. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 32. ︎
5. Armando Riverol, Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992), 12. ︎
6. “Here Are the Winners in the Beauty Contest.” The Washington Post (1877-1922), July 24, 1921. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection, pg. 5. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. ︎
7. “Camden Girl Is Chosen as Miss South Jersey for Pa. Geanta T Shore.” Camden Daily Courier, September 2, 1921. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. ︎
8. Bettmann Archive, Pageant Attendees Posing Outdoors. Mr. & Mrs. Howard Chandler Christie & Miss Gorman at the Atlantic City Pageant; and Beauty Pageant Winner and Mythological Accomplice. Original Caption: Atlantic City, N. J.: Miss Margaret Gorman (Miss America) with Hudson Maxim as “Neptune” at the Atlantic City Beauty Pageant, Photographs. ︎
9. Riverol, Live from Atlantic City, 12-16. ︎
10. Riverol, Live from Atlantic City, 17-18. ︎
11. Bettmann Archive, Large Crowd During Street Parade. Original Caption: Atlantic City: Neptune and Miss America in the parade, Photograph. ︎
12. Bettmann Archive, Miss America 1927 Lois Delander of Joliet, Illinois, Photograph, 1927. ︎
13. Riverol, Live from Atlantic City, 22. ︎
14. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 169-171. ︎
15. Angela J. Latham, “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity,’” Journal of Popular Culture 29, no. 3 (1995): 158. ︎
16. “ATTACKS BATHING REVIEW.: PREACHER SAYS ATLANTIC CITY EVENT ENDANGERS YOUTHFUL MORALS.” New York Times (1923-), Sep 11, 1923. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/attacks-bathing-review/docview/103107222/se-2. ︎
17. “Y.W.C.A. Opens War on Beauty Contest; Calls Atlantic City Parade Peril to Girls.” New York Times (1923-), Apr 18, 1924. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/y-w-c-opens-war-on-beauty-contest-calls-atlantic/docview/103426053/se-2. ︎
18. “Catholic Women Adopt Ban on Beauty Contests: Exploitation of “Feminine Pulchritude” for “Commercial Purposes” is Denounced in Resolution Approved Unanimously by National Council Convention. CATHOLIC WOMEN BAN BEAUTY COMPETITIONS.” The Washington Post (1923-1954), Sep 29, 1927. http://library.ramapo.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/catholic-women-adopt-ban-on-beauty-contests/docview/149693598/se-2 ︎
19. “Seeks Beauty Contest Ban: Oklahoma Congressman Says Women Like Looks More Than Men.” New York Times, August 13, 1921, 13. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times. ︎
20. Elwood Watson, ed., There She Is, Miss America: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 36-38. ︎
21. Elwood Watson and Darcy Martin, “The Miss America Pageant: Pluralism, Femininity, and Cinderella All in One,” Journal of Popular Culture 34, no. 1 (June 1, 2000): 107. ︎
22. “Miss Illinois, Blonde, Wins Beauty West Contest: 16-Year-Old Unbobbed …,” The Washington Post (1923–1954), September 10, 1927, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection; “New Queen of Beauty Has Not Bobbed Hair,” New Britain Herald (New Britain, CT), September 12, 1925, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82014519/1925-09-12/ed-1/seq-1/; “Western Girl Wins Miss America Title: Miss Norma Smallwood of Tulsa,” special to The New York Times, New York Times (1923–), September 11, 1926, p. 15, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: New Jersey Collection. ︎
23. L & M Ottenheimer, publisher, Liberty and Her Attendants – (Suffragette’s Tableau) in Front of Treasury Bldg. March 3, 1913 – Washington, D.C., National Woman’s Party Records, Library of Congress. ︎
24. Paul Thompson, Literary Suffragettes, ca. 1913, Topical Press Agency, Hulton Archive, Getty Images; and Bettmann Archive, Contestants at the 1921 Pageant; Miss Atlantic City (Florence Burke), Miss Philadelphia, and Miss Washington, DC, 1921, Photographs. ︎
25. Jennifer Jones, “The Beauty Queen as Deified Sacrificial Victim,” Theatre History Studies 18 (June 1998): 102. ︎
26. Mary Chapman, “Women and Masquerade in the 1913 Suffrage Demonstration in Washington,” Amerikastudien 44, no. 3 (1999): 344-345. ︎
27. Jones, “The Beauty Queen as Deified Sacrificial Victim,” 102. ︎

grlynn

Grlynn is a Ramapo College senior majoring in history

In the 1920s, American culture was increasingly becoming more secularized, creating tensions between modernity and traditional religious values. The first “Miss America” pageants embodied these conflicts, as it became both a target of religious resistance and a reflection of a callback to older ideas. Americans struggled to balance adapting to modernity while preserving their traditional beliefs and values. Religion was losing its influence on Americans with many standards straying away from the strictness of Victorian attitudes. Religion and Protestantism was no longer a dominant force in cultural norms and in efforts to maintain religion, urban churches started programs that created places of worship alongside spaces for social, recreational, and educational purposes. However, many religious leaders, including Protestant ministers and Jewish leaders, faced declining attendance and decreasing support for missionary efforts. These leaders viewed the popular culture of the 1920s, dominated by materialism and the pursuit of wealth, as a decline in religious values. Religious fundamentalists and Evangelical Christians also feared that the country was experiencing a moral and spiritual decline.¹ The first “Miss America” pageants of the 1920s serve as an example of an event that religious groups sought to oppose through protests, aiming to dismantle what they considered a moral decline. The “Miss America” pageant included a bathing suit competition, which many religious groups opposed. They sought to combat the rise of swimwear in the 1920s, particularly for women, viewing it as immoral and immodest. Moral outrage from clergymen contributed to the censorship of physical appearances on public beaches, as they insisted that women cover their knees.² This influenced the “Miss America” pageant because of its emphasis on “bathing beauties”. The pageant was met with further resistance with religious groups claiming it damaged the good choices, reputation, and morals of young women. Groups like Southern Baptists and the “Atlantic County Federation of Church Women”, joined in resistance and protest. Not only did they believe it damaged women’s morals, but they also viewed it as the exploitation of women for financial gain and corrupting them by encouraging rivalry among themselves.³ These protests are credited as having an important role in why the pageant was temporarily paused in 1928 through the early 30s.

Ironically, while traditional religious groups opposed the pageant for being “immoral”, it was an event that eagerly promoted a “traditional” and “conservative” idea of femininity. The “Miss America” pageant aimed to uphold the image of a more traditional woman, distancing itself from  the “New Woman,” represented by women in politics and flappers. Before the “Miss America” pageant was established in 1921, suffragettes held suffrage pageants. They dressed up as influential women in history, seeking to raise public awareness and funds for their political efforts.⁴ However, the “Miss America” pageant focused only on beauty, based on what men and the audience viewed as beautiful. In addition, the pageant strived to distance itself from the flapper image. Flappers were young, single women who strayed away from Victorian constraints by wearing bobbed hair, shorter and less shaped skirts, darker makeup, and smoked. In contrast, the “Miss America” pageant praised “non threatening” women who had conservative hairstyles such as longer hair, were more subservient, viewed beauty as an important goal, and demonstrated capability of being a good wife, homemaker, and mother.⁵ Contestants who had longer hair were more often praised than those with bobbed or bobbed-like hair. It was an important characteristic for “Miss America” to have, especially in the earlier competitions. Pageant organizers also tried to portray the event as “above alcohol” or other habits such as smoking. Overall, the pageant wished to portray its winners as symbols of what a 1920s American woman “should be and look like”. While religious traditionalists viewed it as immoral, the pageant still sought to revive a more traditional ideal of Victorian-like femininity and virtue.

Bibliography

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang, 1995.

Riverol, Armando. Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992.

Latham, Angela J. “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity.'” Journal of Popular Culture 29, no. 3 (1995): 149–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3840.1995.00149.x.

Watson, Elwood, and Darcy Martin. “The Miss America Pageant: Pluralism, Femininity, and Cinderella All in One.” Journal of Popular Culture 34, no. 1 (June 1, 2000): 105–26. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.2000.3401_105.x.  

Watson, E., ed. “There She Is, Miss America”: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.

Bettmann Archive. Policewomen Checking Length Violations. Chicago, Illinois, 1921.

Bettmann Archive. 1924 Miss America from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Ruth Malcomson. 1924.

Thomas, Bob. Cinema Personalities, 1923, American Actress Colleen Moore. Popperfoto/Getty Images, 1923.

Featured Photo: Atlantic Foto Service. Contestants of the 1925 Miss America Pageant. Atlantic City, New Jersey, 1925.

Citations

1. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 169-186. ︎
2. Angela J. Latham, “Packaging Woman: The Concurrent Rise of Beauty Pageants, Public Bathing, and Other Performances of Female ‘Nudity,’” Journal of Popular Culture 29, no. 3 (1995): 158, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3840.1995.00149.x. ︎
3. Armando Riverol, Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992), 24. ︎
4. Elwood Watson, ed., “There She Is, Miss America”: The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 28-29. ︎
5. Watson, “There She Is, Miss America”, 32. ︎

grlynn

Grlynn is a Ramapo College senior majoring in history

Significant events occurred in the 1920s; this includes the creation of prominent organizations, like the League of Nations, the women’s suffrage movement, and peacemaking efforts. The Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom was one such organization that rose to prominence during this decade, although it had been established before the 1920s. This awareness is tied to my work with the Jane Addams Papers Project. Outside of this, I look at the 1920s as an era in between important world events. It is before the Great Depression, which is of course tied to the presence of Wall Street during the 1920s. Furthermore, it takes place after the industrial revolution and after an important era of the labor movement, which thus means that this decade saw the results of these movements in labor. Perhaps most importantly, the 1920s was part of the interwar period, as it was after World War I and before World War II. This is of course indicative of the post-WWI turmoil that plagued the world, in particular the losing parties in Europe, after the peace treaty. 

1. Louis Armstrong Playing the Trumpet, Herbert Art Gallery & Museum (Herbert Art Gallery & Museum, July 12, 2022), https://www.theherbert.org/news/259/grown-up-in-the-1920s-music.

Upon searching for images of the 1920s, I stumbled upon one of the iconic trumpeter and singer Louis Armstrong. I was, of course, aware of his presence before seeing this image, but I had not known that his music came into popularity during the 1920s. With consideration to the fame and legacy of Armstrong, I can infer from this image that the 1920s was an important era for jazz as a genre. With that said, most images I saw that included people of color were limited to performers like Armstrong. This is indicative of the discrimination that people of color were subjected to during the 1920s.

2. Frank Scherschel, Revelers Celebrating the End of Prohibition, Wisconsin Historical Society (Wisconsin Historical Society), accessed January 27, 2025, https://www.wisconsinhistory.org/Records/Image/IM9426.

This second image demonstrates one of the many reactions the American public had to prohibition, a policy that had slipped my mind upon my first consideration of the events of the 1920s. Although there were individuals who supported prohibition, like Jane Addams, this image makes it clear that there were many who were in complete defiance of this law. The tongue-in-cheek manner in which this image is posed demonstrates the humor with which many interacted with the 18th amendment.

3. An American Advertisement for Cars, Public Broadcasting Service (Public Broadcasting Service), accessed January 27, 2025, https://ny.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ush22-soc-1920sadvert/american-advertisements-in-the-1920s-interactive-image/.

The final image I located when searching through pictures of the 1920s appears to be an advertisement for cars. This makes it clear that by the 1920s, cars became a popular mode of privately owned transportation. This may also be indicative of the increased affordability of cars. The rhetoric of this advertisement further demonstrates the consumer culture that was likely prominent during this decade. 

These images tell a fascinating story of the musical, political, and technological changes that the 1920s saw, but there is much left to be said about the era. I look forward to discovering more about this decade during this semester!

Bibliography

An American Advertisement for Cars. Public Broadcasting Service. Public Broadcasting Service. Accessed January 27, 2025. https://ny.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ush22-soc-1920sadvert/american-advertisements-in-the-1920s-interactive-image/. 

Louis Armstrong playing the trumpet. Herbert Art Gallery & Museum. Herbert Art Gallery & Museum, July 12, 2022. https://www.theherbert.org/news/259/grown-up-in-the-1920s-music. 

Scherschel, Frank. Revelers Celebrating the End of Prohibition. Wisconsin Historical Society. Wisconsin Historical Society. Accessed January 27, 2025. https://www.wisconsinhistory.org/Records/Image/IM9426. 

stefanieviera

Stefanie Viera is a 3rd year History and Humanities & Global Studies double major who is taking the Discovering Digital History course in the spring of 2025. She currently work at the Jane Addams Papers Project as an Editorial Assistant.

When first going into this course and trying to identify the various events that took place during the 1920s, I had a very narrow focus on looking at the United States. However, a number of my peers opened my eyes by choosing to cover topics from all around the world including Greece, Egypt, and Russia. For example, I learned during the early 1920s, the Greco-Turkish War took place from 1919-1922. While the war may not seem as significant at first glance, I was able to see the cause of this War was correlated as an effect to World War One. I also learned about how one year later, in 1923, King “Tut” Tutankhamun’s tomb was exhumed. This influenced many industries that are forms of art such as fashion, textiles, and jewelry. Another notable event or time period occurred in 1924, when Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, more commonly known as Lenin, died. His death rocked Russia as he was the founding leader of Soviet Russia, which during that period became the Soviet Union, from 1917 until 1924.

My advice to anyone interested in learning more about the 1920s is to open your eyes past notable events and individuals that occurred or lived in the United States. There is a great deal of culture that developed and many significant contributions that were made during this time in history. My views have changed from what I initially envisioned the 1920s to be. They have not necessarily shifted to thinking of whether my opinion on this decade was right or wrong, but rather it has expanded to look outside of the box from what I have heard during the one history class in high school that mentioned “The Roaring Twenties” to see how it shaped our current society, about one hundred years later.

Resources:

“History Milestone: The Greco-Turkish War.” Origins. https://origins.osu.edu/milestones/may-2019-greco-turkish-war-smyrna-sakarya-kemal-ottoman.

“King Tutankhamun: How a Tomb Cast a Spell on the World.” BBC Culture. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20191029-king-tutankhamun-the-tragic-cause-of-the-pharaohs-cult.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.

King Tutankhamun

King Tutankhamun’s tomb was exhumed on February 16, 1923, by archaeologist Howard Carter along with a group of historians and important figures in the world at the time. The discovery of this tomb shocked the world as it opened up a time portal to the past treasures of Ancient Egypt. Upon entering the tomb, they were greeted with golden figures and deep blues of lapis lazuli. Decorative inscriptions and insignia left to protect Tutankhamun in his journey to the afterlife were captivating to those who viewed it and left society engrossed in the lifestyle of royalty in Ancient Egypt. King Tut was immortalized in a scene of wealth and gold, and was celebritized thousands of years later for exactly that scene.

When photographs of the findings started to become published to the public, the craze of Egyptian treasures and mystery grew. While there was an overall interest in Ancient Egypt for years before the discovery of the tomb, it reached new highs and left a heavier influence of fashion, makeup, furniture, and fabrics; adding to the new-founded art deco aesthetic. American society sought to replicate the beauty of Egyptian culture within their own lives, and so the United States saw a surge in King Tut-related advertisements, music, books, and movies. He was sensationalized by the media and saw the relics in his tombs as alluring artwork.

King Tutankhamun’s Influence on Society

King Tutankhamun’s rise in popularity was fueled by the American desire to have similar Egyptian treasures of their own. Some parallels can be drawn between the two eras of history; both have been remembered for their lavish lifestyles, unique fashion, and technological advances. As seen in the image above, Egyptian influence on fashion was a key part in the fashion of the 1920s. Short shift dresses often worn by women and men in Ancient Egypt can be seen as similar to the newer, shorter dresses donned by a younger society of women wanting to break free from the modest norm. Statement jewelry of gold and precious jewels were a staple in both eras of history and signified wealth and social status.

Aside from societal revolution, the public exhumation of the tomb brought about a new surge of interest in archaeology and the history found through it. It amazed the public that such an old civilization could have such beautiful and long-lasting treasures. The public became obsessed with these findings, which further fueled the craze for Egyptian history.

The image taken from a New York Times article published on February 16, 1923 further proves the amazement that the public had for King Tutankhamun. Language such as, “dazzled,” “undreamed of splendors,” and “king in nest of shrines,” shows how this discovery took the world by storm. It was truly made out to be luxurious turn of events for historians and the public. The article continues to fawn over the tremendous discoveries inside of the Pharaoh’s final resting place; vivid vocabulary describes the picture of the discovery to be other-worldly and beyond beautiful. It was no wonder the world became so infatuated with King Tutankhamun, as the media was glamorizing the artifacts he was buried with. King Tut was left with his physical wealth at his side, something humans have long been obsessed with; ways to showcase and immortalize their wealth. Tut-mania in the 1920s continued this trend, specifically with the Egyptians in mind, by publishing media and fashion based around it.

Relation to the 1920s

Tut-mania and its influence on the decade of the 1920s proves to be very prominent as time goes on. Fashion trends of this time period were heavily influenced by the findings in King Tutankhamun’s tomb as well as other groundbreaking discoveries in Egyptology. Dresses of the 1920s were decorated in beadwork and embroidery akin to Egyptian art and motifs. Makeup looks of the decade had an emphasis on black kohl eyeliner around the eyes, which was very similar to the style the Egyptians had used thousands of years ago. Society in the United States, especially, drew a lot of inspiration from the findings in King Tutankhamun’s tomb. As mentioned previously, it held significant contribution to the Art Deco style that was frequently used in this time period and leading up into the 1930s. Use of color in furniture in art show a very strong resemblance to the colors often used in Ancient Egyptian art.

Aside from fashion and art, King Tutankhamun served as a cultural icon during the 1920s as the obsession and craze for him grew. His likeness and name were used all throughout media; entire theaters were dedicated to the Egyptian architecture and design. Movies and plays were centered around the Pharaoh, as well as music and lyrics telling his story to the modern world. The 1920s was a rich source of Egyptian revival media that has impacted the way society views the region as a whole. The infatuation with Egyptian culture has led many to glorify the era instead of viewing it as a place full of historical significance.

The impact that Tut-mania had on society in the 1920s was responsible for a good amount of the history we remember today. From an outside perspective, it almost seems as if the fashion and art of the 1920s was a callback to the enchanting lifestyles of Egyptian royalty, such as King Tutankhamun. As written earlier, the fashion of short shift dresses and elaborate jewelry to decorate the body seems to be very akin to the fashion and jewelry discovered in King Tutankhamun’s tomb. It is arguable that Tut-mania helped to shape the 1920s into the lavish and memorable decade it is remembered as today.

Citations

Danton, William. “Tutmania: An Exploration of Western Portrayals of King Tutankhamun and Orientalism in Egypt.” University of Puget Sound. May 15, 2019. https://soundideas.pugetsound.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1035&context=history_theses

“Tut-Ankh-Amen’s Inner Tomb is Opened”, The New York Times, February 16, 1923 

Sarah Grider

Sarah Grider is a student of the 2021 Spring Discovering Digital History class at the Ramapo College of New Jersey. She is currently studying History and Museum & Exhibition Studies. She is an editorial assistant for the Jane Addams Papers Project.