The 1925 Tri-State Tornado outbreak lasted from March 17-18 1925, and it is one of the deadliest tornado outbreaks in recorded history. It was given its name because it traveled across three different states, that being Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. The distance being 219-mile-long (352 km). The reason why it’s considered to be the deadliest tornado is because at least 751 men, women, and children died and 2,2298 were injured. While we can consider the Tri-State Tornado to be a natural disaster, to fully understand this catastrophic event, we should place it in the broader context of the 1920s. The 1920s was a decade that’s often associated with economic growth, flappers, the jazz era, technological advances, and lots of cultural change. The tornado revealed a lot of strengths and weaknesses of what society was like during the twenties, rapidly modernizing but still very vulnerable to natural disasters. 

The 1920s: A Time of Unpredictability

The 1920s, also known as the “Roaring Twenties,” was a time of significant economic expansion, especially in urban areas. New technologies such as automobiles, radios, and telephones changed the way people lived their everyday lives. Lynn Dumenil, who wrote the book The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, describes the decade as a time when Americans embraced “speed, efficiency, and innovation” in ways that significantly transformed both work and leisure.¹ However, the progress in some areas was not the same as the progress in other areas. Rural communities, especially in the Midwest and South, often fell behind cities in infrastructure, communication, and access to emergency services. This uneven development is very important when understanding the devastation of the Tri-State Tornado. While cities were becoming more modern, there were a lot of smaller towns that still relied on older systems of communication. Weather forecasting in 1925 was also very limited. The U.S. National Weather Service did not issue tornado warnings at the time, partly because officials feared causing panic. As a result, lots of different towns and communities in the tornado’s path had little to no warning before the storm struck. Additionally, the cultural atmosphere of the 1920s focused more on modernization and human experience rather than nature. Scientific progress and industrial growth gave many Americans confidence that technology could solve most problems. Yet, disasters such as the Tri-State Tornado challenged this belief. As Lynn Dumneil said, modernity created both optimism and anxiety, as Americans confronted forces they could not fully control in the 1920s.² The tornado showed everyone in the midwest that nature is still just as powerful and unpredictable despite the technological advancements we make.

The Tornado and its Path

The Tri-State Tornado began in southeastern Missouri and moved through southern Illinois and into southwestern Indiana. It traveled at speeds estimated to exceed 60 miles per hour. This gave residents absolutely zero time to prepare for the tornado.³ Entire towns were destroyed within minutes, whether or not people were ready. One of the towns that was hit pretty hard by the tornado was Murphysboro, Illinois, where over 200 people were tragically killed. Contemporary newspaper accounts described scenes of total devastation. In the article “The Murphysboro Tornado” by W.O. Blanchard states “The description of the tornado’s approach by eye-witnesses varied with the position of the observer, the time of the observation and his mental state at the time. The rapid approach of such a huge death-dealing phenomenon provides conditions hardly conducive to calm and careful observation.”⁴ Many newspapers and primary accounts highlight the suddenness and intensity of the disaster. Eyewitnesses often struggled to describe what they saw due to how traumatic the event was. Statements from many survivors include: “A tornado is a unique kind of horror, with the ability to conjure up apocalyptic and downright bizarre scenes. Your house might be flattened, whilst your neighbor’s is untouched. The person you’re sitting next to might die, and you live.” and “From the time you realize a tornado is going to hit, you’re living with the absolute certainty that every second might be your last. When the outer bands reach you, you’re in almost complete darkness and your house is being soaked in torrential rain and hammered with debris. And when it strikes with a defining roar, there’s nothing to do but hold on and wait, and hope you come out alive.”⁵ What the people saw reflected the terrifying and unfamiliar nature of tornadoes for many people at the time, especially given the limited time noticed before the disaster struck. 

News Coverage and Reactions

Newspaper articles from 1925 provide insight into how people experienced and understood the disaster. Newspapers across the country very quickly started to report on the destruction, often emphasizing the scale of the tragedy. Eyewitness News had this to say about the event “In total, 695 people lost their lives. The town of Griffin, among others, was destroyed but rebuilt. A Main Street building is believed to have survived the tornado. The school, destroyed, but later rebuilt as well. What’s left of that school still stands today, along with memories of the town’s resilient spirit,”⁶ the high death toll, countless injuries, and widespread damage were proof of how deadly and traumatizing the tornado was. Relief efforts also reveal a lot of information about this era. Organizations such as the American Red Cross played a huge role in providing aid for those affected. After the tornado, the Tri-State region demonstrated remarkable strength and compassion. Survivors, victims’ families, and affected communities showed resilience as they endured, grieved, and began to rebuild. Rescue workers and neighboring communities provided essential food, temporary housing, and medicine to support recovery efforts.⁷ There were also lots of volunteers who distributed food, clothing, and medical supplies, showing the importance of national relief organizations in times of crisis. Local governments, churches, and civic groups also participated in relief efforts. In many cases, communities relied heavily on volunteer labor rather than formal emergency systems. This reliance reflects the limited role of the federal government in disaster response during the 1920s. Unlike today, there was no centralized agency equivalent to modern emergency management organizations. Personal letters and survivor testimonies further illustrate the impact the disaster had on those living in the area. Many accounts describe families searching for missing relatives or attempting to rebuild their homes with limited resources. These sources remind us that beyond the statistics, the tornado caused profound personal loss.

Has Modernity Caused Problems in the Long Run?

The Tri-State Tornado also shows us how much people contradicted themselves in the twenties. On one hand, the decade was characterized by technological progress and optimism. On the other hand, the disaster exposed the limits of that progress. As Dumenil explains, modernity in the 1920s often created “a sense of both excitement and unease,” as Americans navigated rapid change.⁸ The Tri-State Tornado tells us what Dumenil meant by “a sense of unease”. For example, while railroads and telegraphs allowed news of the disaster to spread quickly, it didn’t help with preventing the disaster from happening. Similarly, advances in engineering had not yet led to tornado-resistant buildings. Many structures in the affected areas were poorly constructed and unable to withstand extreme winds. Another important factor was the absence of a coordinated national response. The federal government in the 1920s generally followed a policy of limited intervention in local affairs. As a result, disaster relief depended heavily on private organizations and state governments. This approach often led to uneven recovery efforts, with some communities receiving more assistance than others.

Social and Economic Impact

The economic impact the Tornado had on the midwest was severe, especially in smaller towns that relied heavily on agriculture and local businesses. Unfortunately, crops were destroyed, livestock killed, and infrastructures were damaged. In many cases, local towns and communities were going to be struggling for years. We can highlight areas where the economic hardships are most notable through the broader prosperity of the 1920s. During this time, America was split in two; some Americans enjoyed rising incomes and consumer goods, while others faced ongoing challenges. The tornado disproportionately affected rural populations, highlighting inequalities within American society. Many farmers were already dealing with the prices of their crops dropping during the 1920s, and this natural disaster only made their situation even worse. In the social aspect, the disaster brought communities together. Neighbors helped one another rebuild, and aid from local organizations provided support for those in need. However, recovery was very slow during this time, and many families never fully regained what they had lost during the time the tornado struck. Several communities were almost completely demolished, which required them to be rebuilt immediately, which altered the psychical and social landscape of the region.

Making a Change

One of the many long-term effects of the Tri-State Tornado was its impact on scientific research and public policy. Meteorologists began to study tornadoes more seriously than ever before. They wanted to understand a tornado’s formation and behaviors. Over time, the extensive research contributed to improved forecasting techniques that will greatly help citizens if another tornado were to attack. Although these changes were not immediate and they would take some time. The disaster did however greatly shift how we predict the weather. Eventually, the U.S. government became more willing to invest in meteorological research and warning systems. By the mid-20th century, tornado warnings became more common, significantly reducing the death tolls in future storms. This natural disaster also greatly influenced architecture and construction. People in affected areas advocated for sturdy homes and structures. Although it would take a while to build, people got to work with constructing stronger buildings that would hold up during a tornado.

Interpretations

Historians and scholars have analyzed the Tri-State Tornado from various perspectives. While some historians liked to focus on its meteorological significance, with how tense and scary the tornado was. Other historians liked to examine the social and historical context. Scholarly studies show that the high death toll was not only due to the storm being unusually fast (60-70 mph), but it also struck rural areas and residents had zero warning beforehand. These interpretations align with Lynn Dumenil’s broader arguments that the 1920s were a time of transition, where old traditions and new traditions coexisted.⁹

The Legacy of the Tri-State Tornado

There’s a lot of things the Tri-State Tornado can be known for, it’s the deadliest tornado of all time, and it also holds the record for the longest path length in history. It led to increased interest in tornado research and eventually contributed to the development of how we get natural disaster warnings. Over time, scientists gained a better understanding of severe weather and because of this, we can help reduce the impact future storms may have. The disaster also serves as a reminder that the rapid technological advances did not eliminate the vulnerability that was still present. Even if the twenties were filled with modernization, natural disasters were able to have devastating effects on people.

Conclusion

The Tri-State Tornado outbreak of 1925 was more than just a natural disaster; it also serves as a reflection of the broader tensions of the 1920s. While the decade is often remembered for its prosperity and innovation, the tornado revealed the limits of that progress, especially in rural areas in America. By taking a look at news and weather reports that happened during this time, and scholarly interpretations, we can see how the events fit into a larger context of the 1920s. At the end of the day, the Tri-State Tornado highlights how important it is to prepare for incoming storms and natural disasters, to properly inform citizens that something dangerous is coming, and how scientific understanding on the weather is important. It reminds us that even in times of growth and optimism, societies must remain aware of their vulnerabilities. The disaster still remains relevant today as we are still facing environmental challenges and it still holds many records to this day. 

Bibliogrpahy

1. Atteberry, Todd. 2025. Tracing the Scars of Hell.
2. Bailey, Cody, and Isaiah Calalang. 2025. “Remembering the 1925 Tri-State Tornado.” Eyewitness News (WEHT/WTVW). March 18, 2025. https://www.tristatehomepage.com/news/local-news/posey-county/remembering-the-1925-tri-state-tornado/.
3. Blanchard, W. O. “The Murphysboro Tornado.” The Scientific Monthly 23, no. 5 (1926): 434–46. http://www.jstor.org/stable/7421.
4. Dumenil, Lynn. 2007. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill And Wang, [Ca.
5. Museum, Evansville. 2025. “The Tri-State Tornado: Tragedy and Resilience | Evansville Museum of Arts, History & Science.” Emuseum.org. 2025. https://www.emuseum.org/exhibitions/the-tri-state-tornado-tragedy-and-resilience.
6. US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Weather Service. 2020. “1925 Tornado.” Weather.gov. 2020. https://www.weather.gov/pah/1925Tornado.

1. Dumenil, Lynn. 2007. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill And Wang, [Ca.
   ‌ ︎
2. Dumenil, Lynn. 2007. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill And Wang, [Ca. ︎
3. US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Weather Service. 2020. “1925 Tornado.” Weather.gov. 2020. https://www.weather.gov/pah/1925Tornado. ︎
4. Blanchard, W. O. “The Murphysboro Tornado.” The Scientific Monthly 23, no. 5 (1926): 434–46. http://www.jstor.org/stable/7421. ︎
5. Atteberry, Todd. 2025. Tracing the Scars of Hell.
   ‌ ︎
6. Bailey, Cody, and Isaiah Calalang. 2025. “Remembering the 1925 Tri-State Tornado.” Eyewitness News (WEHT/WTVW). March 18, 2025. https://www.tristatehomepage.com/news/local-news/posey-county/remembering-the-1925-tri-state-tornado/.
   ‌ ︎
7. Museum, Evansville. 2025. “The Tri-State Tornado: Tragedy and Resilience | Evansville Museum of Arts, History & Science.” Emuseum.org. 2025. https://www.emuseum.org/exhibitions/the-tri-state-tornado-tragedy-and-resilience.
   ‌ ︎
8. Dumenil, Lynn. 2007. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill And Wang, [Ca. ︎
9. Dumenil, Lynn. 2007. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill And Wang, [Ca. ︎

The Nixon Nitration Works was a factory that manifactured highly flamable materials like cellulose nitrate and the lack of supervison in the factory caused the huge disater of March 1, 1924 which destroyed forty buildings and killed twenty people at the company’s New Jersey facility on the Raritan River. After the explosion, the Nixon factory was rebuilt into a smaller factory then kept functioning for a while but Lewis Nixon died due to the exposure of the deadly chemicals. Stanhope Nixon was the son of Lewis Nixon who also took over the factory but his son couldnt keep the busines going causing the closore of the nixon factory after a while the location was donated to the state of New Jersey and has since been re-named Edison, near New Brunswick.

The company was founded by naval architect Lewis Nixon in 1915 to manufacture cellulose nitrate, besides the production of celluloid, this factory used to supply some European nations with gunpowder and other materials for World War 1. When the war ended, these facilities were put to broader uses, were involving other explosive materials and dangerous chemicals The nitrate made the material highly flammable, but at the works cellulose nitrate was maintained in large sheets and had been piled in buildings. Within the works, Nixon leased a building to the Ammonite Company which was salvaging the contents of artillery shells for use as agriculture fertilizer. When the Ammonite building exploded, the shock was felt and the sound heard as far away as Manhattan and Brooklyn. After the initial explosion massive fires spread to other buildings.

Additionally, On March 1, 1924, an explosion, likely originating from an Ammonite Company building within the works that was processing ammonium nitrate from artillery shells, triggered a fire that spread rapidly through the surrounding building The disaster resulted in at least 20 deaths, with dozens more injured, many suffering from severe burns, inhalation of toxic fumes, and blunt force trauma from collapsing buildings and flying debris. Some victims were never recovered due to the intensity of the blast. The explosion leveled approximately 40 buildings within the chemical plant, reducing the once-thriving industrial hub to rubble. Fires burned for hours, fueled by volatile chemicals, making it nearly impossible for firefighters to contain the blaze immediately. Nearby factories and homes were also damaged due to the shockwave and subsequent fires. The explosion released toxic chemicals into the air and local waterways, contaminating soil and water supplies. Given the lack of environmental regulations at the time, the full extent of the damage was not immediately addressed, but the effects likely persisted for years.

The History

The workplace accidents/deaths are connected to how harsh the environment was in the workplace during the 1920s. The United States of America during the 1920s was in the revolutionary era when big factories, industrial work, construction, mining, oil rigs, mechanics, soldiers, hard labor, and big-name companies started to rise. All men had to go to work every day to survive and yet most men died at their jobs in the 1920s. Additionally, workplace injuries/deaths were common, and, in many cases, labor conditions were nothing less than grueling. Moreover, the main cause of death was not because of the jobs, they were due to exposure to harsh/deadly chemicals to the body. People were not as knowledgeable as today and many resources we have today they did not have 100 years ago. For example, men who worked in the mines all died due to Tuberculosis and lung cancer for not having the right oxygen mask protection. Mining is one of the deadliest industries, with cave-ins, explosions, and toxic gas exposure causing many deaths. Factories and manufacturing plants also had unsafe machinery with little to no protective measures, leading to crushing, amputations, and fatal injuries. Additionally, the 1920s had very unsafe workplace safety, leading to early labor protections, but this did not change until stricter regulations and enforcement significantly reduced workplace fatalities, like OSHA, ASSP, ANSI, and CSB. These organizations were designed to protect workers from unsafe work environments. During the 1920s, the jobs were extremely limited when it came to women. Additionally, women were only allowed to work as nurses and teachers during the 1920s but given this, women were not exposed to harsh workplace environments as men did.

In the book, The Modern Temper chapter three mentions how the country was expanding to the consumer culture in the late 1920s causing many new jobs to arise for the automobile factories due to its 3.7 million car production number. Chapter 3 mentioned how in the 1930s the American Federation of Labor was extremely focused on the labor movement and making the work environment safer. Furthermore, the AFL association was extremely racist because it did not help Mexicans, African Americans, Asians, and women. The connection this book has with Nixon’s Nitration Work is about the industrial expansion of evolution in factories and construction. The Nixon Nitration Company was founded by Lewis Nixon in 1915. The factories manufacture cellulose nitrate and the production of celluloid and other early plastics. The nitrate made the material highly flammable, and the cellulose nitrate was supported in large sheets and had been piled in buildings. There was an explosion that started in one of the buildings, and the fire spread taking down a few nearby buildings along with 20 people’s lives. All those chemical materials stored together made the fire spread much quicker. Additionally, this is just one of the many accidents that happened during the 1920s due to unsafe procedures in the workplace.

Map

Over time, the site of the Nixon Nitration Works was redeveloped, with much of the area now consisting of residential and commercial properties. The industrial nature of Nixon faded as Edison, NJ, transformed into a suburban community. Additionally, In 1951, the company downsized and donated 48 acres of land and a dam to the city of New Brunswick. The site of the Nixon Works is now a part of Middlesex County College and the Raritan Center Industrial Park.

The End of the accident

The Nixon Nitration Works disaster of 1924 remains a significant event in the history of industrial accidents in the United States. It was a tragedy that claimed lives, devastated a community, and exposed critical weaknesses in industrial safety procedures. The explosion exposed the dangers associated with chemical manufacturing and the need for better safety measures to protect workers and the public. Additionally, this heartbreaking event ultimately contributed to the evolution of industrial safety regulations and environmental protection policies. Today, industries operate under much stricter guidelines, reducing the likelihood of similar catastrophes. The lessons from the Nixon Nitration Works explosion continue to be relevant, serving as a reminder that safety must always be a top priority in hazardous industries.

Citations

Bibliography

“March 03, 1924 – Topics on Newspapers.com.” Topics, www.newspapers.com/topics/century-ago-today/march-1924/march-03-1924/.

‌“1924 Nixon Nitration Works Disaster.” Wikipedia, 1 Oct. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1924_Nixon_Nitration_Works_disaster.

‌

Before the fire, Smyrna was a vibrant, diverse city, perhaps the most diverse within modern-day Turkey by the beginning of the 1920s. According to the most recent statistics before the city burned, there were one hundred and sixty-five thousand Turks, one hundred and fifty thousand Greeks, twenty-five thousand Armenians, twenty-five thousand Jews, and twenty thousand foreigners.¹ Compare this to Constantinople’s population, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, from a decade before, which had two hundred seventy nine thousand Muslims, sixty four thousand Greeks, twenty seven thousand Armenians, and 13 thousand Jews.² Smyrna’s demographics resembled those of an American city rather than one that might be part of an ethnic Greek or Turkish state. The city had four quarters: the Turkish/Muslim Quarter, Jewish Quarter, Armenian Quarter, and Greek/European Quarter. Although it would be very common to see all 4 groups outside of their quarters and mingling with each other. There was even a 5th group who resided outside of the city called the Levantines who were descendents of European immigrants that had started to assimilate into Turkish culture.³ 

Once WWI ended everyone knew that Smyrna was going to change hands, but the question was how would each of these groups fit into the state that would control Smyrna next. The Ottoman Empire, the state that governed Smyrna before, was on its last legs and the Greeks had plans to annex Western Turkey. Inside the Ottoman Empire a group of Turkish nationalists called the Young Turks, were becoming very popular and it seemed the Young Turks and the Greeks would soon be on a collision course for Smyrna. The Turks, the Greeks, and maybe even the Armenians knew what each of these states meant for them, but for the Jews it was different. They faced the same questions as the Jews in America during the 1920s: how to balance their Jewish identity with that of their state. Under the Ottoman Empire, Jews were Jews, as it wasn’t a nation-state, but under a Turkish or Greek state it was more complex. In America during the 1920s, Jews found ways to preserve their ethnic identity while embracing Americanization.⁴

The Greeks ended up being the first to make move on Smyrna after WWI ended. The Greeks at the Paris Peace conference of 1919 represented by their Prime Minister, Eleftherios Venizelos, claimed almost all of modern-day Western Turkey that bordered the Aegean Sea on the grounds that it was the historic lands of the Greeks and that many of those places had Greek majority populations. . Then on May 9 at a meeting of the big three Allied Powers, Britain, France, and the United States would decide to allow the Greeks to invade Smyrna to deter the Italians from gaining territory in Asia Minor. David Lloyd George brought up the idea to Venizelos by asking him the simple question of “Do you have troops available?”⁵ This simple question would have obvious consequences that the leaders of the big three all should of known but decided to ignore. By letting the Greeks invade they opened up Pandora’s box and the Greeks, Turks, and Armenians of Anatolia would pay a great price for it.

The Greek Invasion and Occupation of Smyrna

The Greeks invaded Smyrna on the May 15, 1919 and were greeted by the cheers of the Greek population. The Greeks had failed to plan ahead to secure the city though and the month that followed the invasion was chaos. The Greeks started looting the Turkish houses and massacres of both Turks and Greeks were committed. For a month there wasn’t even a Greek General in Smyrna.⁶

The Greek occupation and invasion of Smyrna would only last for about 3 years. The invasion only made the Turk and Greek Nationalists hate each other even more. With Greeks being resettled, Turks being kicked out, and the lower ranks of the military and Greek citizens committing violent acts against the Turks. ⁷ The Greeks decided to keep pushing East but eventually the Turks beat them back and pushed them all the way back to Smyrna. Turkish troops under the command of their nationalist commander, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, ended the Greek occupation of Smyrna on September, 9, 1922. This assured Smyrna and its diverse population that the city would be apart of a future Turkish state. But, a Turkish state was supposed to only include Turks so the question was now what would happen to the Greeks, Armenians, Levantine, and the other non-Turk populations of the city. 4 days later those population would figure out what the new Turkish leaders of the city wanted to do with them.

The Turkish Occupation

The Fire

In the afternoon on September 13, 1922 a small fire broke out in the Armenian quarter in Smyrna. This small fire would end up devouring the entire Greek and Armenians quarters of the city and heavily damaging the general European quarter of the city. This is the 1922 Fire of Smyrna. According to the Minnie Mills of the American Collegiate Institute she saw a Turkish soldier enter the building in the Armenian quarter where the first fire started and then exit with tins that containing fuel. Then soon after many other small fires started. She added that on this day the wind was blowing West away from the Turkish quarter. Mills also said that soon after Armenians start to crowd the streets but the Turks blocked the road and instructed them to go back into their houses. Mrs. King Birge who went to the top of the tower of the American Collegiate Institute also said she saw Turkish soldiers with fuel cans setting fires in the Armenian quarter of Smyrna. When George Horton, the American Consul in Smyrna, looked out his terrace on the afternoon of September 13 he saw a dark cloud of black smoke covering the city. ⁸ The fires in the Armenian quarter were only the beginning of the fire. The fire would spread to the Greek and European quarters and would last for 9 whole days.

The Americans weren’t the only ones to notice Turkish soldiers lighting fire to the Armenian quarter. A firemen who arrived to the scene of the first fire, Sargent Tchorbadjis, testified that he saw a Turkish solider lighting fire to the interior of a drawer in an Armenian house. Another firefighter, Emanuel Kastros, said he saw Turkish soldiers puring drums of petroleum in an Armenian;s house and when asked about it they said their orders were to light fire to the Armenian houses. By 2 PM almost the entire Armenian quarter was in flames and all the residents who didn’t burn in the fire or weren’t murdered by Turkish soldiers crowded the wharf. ⁹ The Armenians were now stuck in a huge crowd between the bay and the giant fire raging behind them. They would wait on the wharf for 9 days while they watched their homes and the city that they called home turn into ashes. The Armenians had lived mostly peacefully in Smyrna for centuries and now the forces that adhered to the foreign ideology of Nationalism had erased all of that history. They forced the Armenians to leave the only place they called home just because they weren’t considered Turks.

On the first day the Armenians weren’t the only ones who were in trouble. The British, the French, and the Americans had to also flee from the European quarter on the first day of the Fire. The Europeans and the Americans though had a safe far away place to retreat to. Any American, French, or British citizen was guaranteed a spot on a battleship of the coast away from the blazing heat and choking black smoke of the fire. For example, some French Catholic fathers from their Church that was on fire to the French Consulate where after that caught fire they were transferred to a French battleship.¹⁰

The Europeans and Americans did have a safe place to go to offshore but on their way there many tried to help the Greek and Armenian refugees. For example, George Horton held 2,000 refugees that consisted of Armenians, Americans, and Greeks. Horton had an American petty officer James Webster along with other American Marines guided Armenian, Greek, and American refugees to the wharf and protected them when Turkish soldiers started shooting at them on their way to the wharf.¹¹ Horton and the other Americans would end up using those same marines to push through the crowd at the wharf to get to the waterfront and leave on a ship.leaving the Another example, is when the French decided to take an Armenian girl and her immediate family onto their battleship after she showed up at the French consulate speaking great French. ¹²

By the end of the first day almost of the Armenians and Europeans had evacuated the city proper and were either stranded on the wharf or sailing back to their home countries. The Armenian and European quarters of the city were in ashes by the end of the day, but for the Greek quarter it was a different story. The Greeks had not totally evacuated the city yet as not the entire quarter was in flames and the Turks had been focusing on the Armenians all day so there were still safe places to hide in the Greek quarter. But, by the next day on September 14 the slight relief the Greeks felt would end. For example, Georgios Tsoubariots, an eleven year old Greek child at the time was hiding with his family in a Greek Church on the 13th but in the morning of the 14th bandits came with knifes and robbed them at knife point. After they fled to the inside of family tomb at a Greek Cemetery. Another Greek family, the Verkine family had survived hiding in their house the first night but on the second day the flames finally caught up to their house and they were forced to flee to the wharf.¹³

The Quay

Almost all of the refugees who were fleeing their burning homes ended up at the quay. The quay was indeed safe from the fire thanks to it being but at the quay there was much more to worry about than just the fire. Horton described the quay as he was sailing away on the night of the 13th as “a narrow water-front covered with a great throng of people-an ever increasing throng”.¹⁴ An even more detailed account by a British eyewitness, Mr Wallace, described the quay as the most tragic sight he ever saw. The quay had no food or water there and was crowded beyond capacity. They were so starved and exhausted that the fire no longer even panicked them. ¹⁵ According to the American vice-consul in the middle of the hunger, thirst, and exhausted refugees were armed Turks with clubs that were going through hitting everyone in sight.¹⁶

By the 19th of September conditions at the quay became even worse. Decaying corpses were spread among the hundreds of thousands of people stranded and disease was rampant thanks to contaminated food and water. The Allies had refused to use their ships in the Smyrna harbor to help the starving masses of refugees. Luckily, thanks to one man’s intense resolve to help the people on the quay they wouldn’t have to say their much longer. This man was Asa Jennings, an employee of Smyrna’s YMCA. Jennings through a combination of bluffing and pure luck had convinced the Greeks to put him in charge of all Greek ships in the Aegean and an American ship to escort them to Smyrna. By morning of September 24 his rescue fleet arrived at the quay.¹⁷

Jennings had made it to Smyrna with a fleet of Greek ships, but getting the ships to come was the easy part comparatively to his next task. There were hundreds of thousands of refugees on the quay who were desperate for help to escape the fire and only a limited amount of ships. The Turkish authorities didn’t make it easy at first for Jennings to rescue them and put severe restrictions on Jennings rescue effort. Eventually the Turkish authorities realized this was how they would get rid of the non-Turks of the new Turkish state and started helping the evacuation effort. All of the living refugees on the quay would be evacuated to Greece where refugees either or used a jumping off point to immigrate to other countries like France, the United States, and Canada.¹⁸

Aftermath

There are conflicting reports on the amount of the shear cost of human life the fire had caused. The lowest estimates of the time from the newspapers said 120,000 people had died. The United States had spent over 95 millions 1922 dollars on relief for the refugees of Smyrna.¹⁹ Later estimates said 100,000 people died while another 100,00 were deported to the interior.²⁰ Newspapers in America and England at the time did talk about the death and destruction, but it was a lot more focused on the American and British destruction that was done. The front page of the Washington Times from September 16, 1922 said in big letters “U.S. Suffers Loss of 15,000,000 in Great Fire Sweeping Smyrna” and under that in small letters they put “300,000 homeless.²¹ The Birmingham Post in England titled their article on December 2, 1924 “£20,000,000 Involved in Insurance Claims. The article was about how an insurance company went to court to have it decide if the fire was an accident or not as his clients were trying claiming it wasn’t an accident to reap the insurance benefits.²² The American, British, and other European governments were pushing the narrative that the Turks started the fire yet here were British businessmen trying to go against all the proof that those governments had stated just so they didn’t have to suffer the loss of property in a place that was in conflict for years before the fire.

At the end of the day the specific human and monetary cost of the damage doesn’t matter. What matters is the Turks purposefully set the fire to purge all the non-Turks from one of the most diverse cities in Asia Minor by almost all accounts of the time. What matters is once the fire ended hundreds of thousands of people were now homeless and kicked out of the only home they ever knew. What matters is that almost the entire cultural history of two populations who lived in Smyrna peacefully for centuries was erased in the matter of weeks. What matters is that Turkish historians still deny today that the Turkish military had any involvement in the fire despite the hundreds of personal accounts of the fire by Greeks, Armenians, and other who say otherwise.

Sadly in Turkey and Greece the animosity between the two populations only grew until the Greco-Turkish war ended with the Treaty of Lausanne and the Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations in 1923. The convention didn’t transfer though just the Greek and Turkish populations in each state like it is popularly thought. The text of the agreement specifically says that Greek Orthodox Christians in Turkey will go to Greece and Muslims in Greece will go to Turkey.²³ There were ethnic Greeks and other ethnicities in Turkey who were Greek Orthodox and Muslims in Greece who weren’t Turkish and so they got caught up in the fight and had to leave their homes. 1.6 million people left their homes and transferred to their new declared countries as said by a bunch of leaders who had not asked them whether they wanted to move or not. The Fire of Smyrna was only a small part and precursor to this much larger conflict.

The Fire of Smyrna and the 1920s

Smyrna before the fire could very much be described as a “melting pot” just like how many people described America in the 20s. Both the people of Smyrna and all of the over the world, especially in America were trying figure whether being a “melting pot” was a good or bad. In the 1920s it was decided in many places including America and Smyrna that this was bad and their countries needed to be more homogenous. The Turks did this with the Fire of Smyrna and the population transfer at the end of it. The Americans did this by enacting immigration legislation and calling for the Americanization of immigrants that were already there.²⁴ The Greeks, Turks, and other ethnicities were also forced with Grecification and Turkification when they arrived in their newly assigned countries. In Greece the refugees were forced to live in poverty in the worst quarter of Athens, but they forged a community there.²⁵ The same was true for American immigrants like Mexicans who lived in poor conditions but forged a community through that.²⁶

Another big theme of the 1920s persistent in the narrative of the Fire of Smyrna was the rise of cooperate power. American and other European corporations had a lot interests in Smyrna as seen by the earlier mentioned news articles. In the 20s it was a popular opinion that business should just be allowed to pursue their interests with as government interference as possible and was favorable towards business in general.²⁷ This explains the context behind why so many foreign newspapers were covering the loss suffered by business in the fire because many people genuinely wanted to know about it and probably thought businesses should be able to recoup their losses from the fire.

Another big theme of the 1920s persistent in the narrative of the Fire of Smyrna was the rise of cooperate power. American and other European corporations had a lot interests in Smyrna as seen by the earlier mentioned news articles. In the 20s it was a popular opinion that business should just be allowed to pursue their interests with as government interference as possible and was favorable towards business in general.²⁷ This explains the context behind why so many foreign newspapers were covering the loss suffered by business in the fire because many people genuinely wanted to know about it and probably thought businesses should be able to recoup their losses from the fire.

Significance

The Fire of Smyrna is just one small example of the many crimes that were committed before and after the Greco-Turkish War by both governments, the consequences of Nationalism, and European intervention. Nationalism was a European invented ideology that had spread to one of the few places in the world where multiple different peoples, ethnicities, and religions had gotten a long for almost a thousand years. All over the Middle East in the post WWI era massacres just the like Fire of Smyrna motivated by Nationalism. Hundreds of thousands of people died then and still die today because Europeans decided to spread the ideology that caused them to fight the biggest and deadliest war to ever be fought in history at the time to the places they colonized and traded with. Massacres like the Fire of Smyrna should not just be used an example of why genocide needs to be prevented, but why Nationalism is a flawed ideology that leads to conflict not peace. Neither the Turks nor the Greeks started the conflict that led up to the Fire of Smyrna, the Europeans started. Its the same for almost every other conflict in the Middle East. One people for one land always leads to crimes like the Fire of Smyrna happening whether that was the intention or not. People need to realize in battles all over the world that the battles they are fighting are not their battles, but the battles foreign nations wanted them to fight. They need stop blaming each other for starting conflicts and instead blame the real culprits, European colonial powers.

The Fire of Smyrna on a Map of Modern Day Izmir

Additional Resources

• Greek Genocide Resource Center provides online access to resources on the atrocities the Ottoman Empire and Turkey committed against from 1914 – 1923.
• Armenian National Institute is a website dedicated to the study of the Armenian Genocide.
• Levantine Heritage Foundation is a website dedicated the study and preservation of the communities in the Levant from the 1600s to the 1900s. The website has a lot of really amazing information about the Greek and Armenian communities in Smyrna before the fire and was one of my main resources when making my map.

Footnotes

1. George Horton, The Blight of Asia: an Account of the Systematic Extermination of Christian Populations by Mohammedans and of the Culpability of Certain Great Powers; with the True Story of the Burning of Smyrna, (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1926), 101. ︎
2. Kemal H. Karpat, Ottoman Population 1830-1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics, (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), 102. ︎
3. ︎
4. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 260-262. ︎
5. Michael Llewyn Smith, Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor 1919-1922, (New York: St Martins Press, 1973), 78-81. ︎
6. ︎
7. ︎
8. Horton, Blight of Asia, 144-145. ︎
9. Giles Milton, Paradise Lost: Smyrna 1922: Destruction of a Christian City in the Islamic World, (New York: Basic Books, 2008), 307-309. ︎
10. Ibid, 308. ︎
11. Ibid, 312. ︎
12. Horton, Blight of Asia, 152. ︎
13. Milton, Paradise Lost, 329-332. ︎
14. Horton, Blight of Asia, 152. ︎
15. “Smyrna’s Last Days: A Manchester Man’s Experience” in The Martyrdom of Smyrna and Eastern Christendom: A File of Overwhelming Evidence, Denouncing the Misdeeds of the Turks in Asia Minor and Showing Their Responsibility for the Horrors of Smyrna, ed. Lysimachos, Oeconomos, (Plymouth, UK: The Mayflower Press, 1922), 52-54. ︎
16. Milton, Paradise Lost, 336. ︎
17. Ibid, 354-360. ︎
18. Ibid, 361-373. ︎
19. Horton, The Blight of Asia, 173-175. ︎
20. Milton, Paradise Lost, 373. ︎
21. “US Suffer Loss of $15,000,000 in Great Fire Sweeping Smyrna”, Washington TImes, (Washington D.C., District of Columbia), Sep 16, 1922. ︎
22. “The Law Courts: Sequel to the Great Fire At Smyrna: £20,000,000 Involved in Insurance Claims”, Birmingham Post, (Birmingham, UK), 2 Dec, 1924. ︎
23. Treaty of Lausanne IV: Convention Concerning The Exchange on Greek and Turkish Populations, (Hellenic Resources Network, 1923), ︎
24. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 203-206. ︎
25. Milton, Paradise Lost, 374. ︎
26. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 251. ︎
27. Ibid, 32-34. ︎
28. Ibid, 32-34. ︎

Bibliography

• Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill and Wang, 1995.
• Horton, George. The Blight of Asia: An Account of the Systematic Extermination of Christian Populations by Mohammedans and of the Culpability of Certain Great Powers; with a True Story of the Burning of Smyrna. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1926.
• Karpat, Kemal H. Ottoman Population 1830-1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2000.
• Milton, Giles. Paradise Lost: Smyrna 1922 – The Destruction of Islam’s City of Tolerance. New York: Basic Books, 2008.
• Oeconomos, Lysimachos. The Martyrdom of Smyrna and Eastern Christendom: A File of Overwhelming Evidence, Denouncing the Misdeeds of the Turks in Asia Minor and Showing Their Responsibility for the Horrors of Smyrna. Plymouth, UK: The Mayflower Press, 1922.
• Smith, Michael Llewellyn. Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919-1922. New York: St Martins Press, 1973.
• The Law Courts: Sequel to the Great Fire At Smyrna: £20,000,000 Involved in Insurance Claims”. Birmingham Post.(Birmingham, UK). 2 Dec, 1924. ︎
• “US Suffer Loss of $15,000,000 in Great Fire Sweeping Smyrna”, Washington Times. (Washington D.C., District of Columbia). Sep 16, 1922.

Florida’s sandy shores and sunny skies, aptly nicknamed the “Sunshine State” in the Southeastern United States, has attracted dreamers, vacationers, and fortune seekers for generations. With over 1,300 miles of coastline and a subtropical climate year-round, it is an extremely popular destination for not only vacations but for permanent residents as well. In the early 20th century, the charm of this tropical paradise was particularly powerful, fueling a land boom that transformed Miami from a sleepy beach town into a bustling city. The 1920s saw unprecedented economic growth and cultural transformation across America; Miami was no exception. However, this era of hopefulness came to a halt in September 1926 with the arrival of the Great Miami Hurricane, a giant storm that left a path of devastation.

Before the storm

Miami’s transformation into a major urban center was swift and dramatic. Incorporated in 1896, the city experienced exponential population growth. In the summer of 1913, Carl Fisher, an investor, and other investors hired the First Clark Dredging Company of Baltimore to clear away one thousand acres of swamp and replace it with bay bottomland, or flat land. The company employed African-American laborers for the brutal task of slashing through the mangroves. They then neatly covered the shore with some bay bottom, or sand pumped up from the ocean and soil from the Everglades area. After that, rapid industrialization was driven by factors such as Henry Flagler’s railroad expansion, connecting Florida and the Florida Keys with the rest of America, something that was unheard of at the time, along with aggressive land development campaigns. Between 1900 and 1910, Miami’s population more than doubled, reaching nearly 30,000 by 1920. A newspaper ad in 1921 named Miami Beach a paradise with “practically no danger from storms.” This perception, coupled with the absence of significant hurricanes since 1910, encouraged a false sense of security among investors and residents.

Construction boomed during this period, with large hotels, exquisite casinos, and beautiful beach houses springing up to accommodate the surge of tourists and new residents. Miami’s economy thrived on tourism, especially during the winter months, when visitors flocked to the warm weather. Real estate sales reached new heights, fueled by ambitious projects like the reclamation of the Everglades and the rapid expansion of road networks for automobiles, as well as investors purchasing land and properties in anticipation of future growth and profits. Additionally, agricultural activities, like farming, thrived in the surrounding areas, contributing to the region’s economic prosperity. The passage of a constitutional amendment in 1924, prohibiting state inheritance and income taxes, further fueled investor confidence and attracted capital to the region. The city saw the construction of roads, bridges, and other transportation networks to accommodate the growing number of residents and visitors. The city also invested in improving utilities like water supply, sewage systems, and electricity. However, these improvements did not reach all residents, particularly those in marginalized communities. In addition, beneath the prosperity were structural weaknesses and vulnerabilities. Many buildings were hastily constructed, lacking proper reinforcement to withstand the force of a major hurricane. Most of the natural plants and wildlife that would have done a bit to protect from the storm was destroyed in the rapid development. The city’s infrastructure, including drainage systems and flood defenses, was not equipped to cope with the powerful storm.

 Miami’s population during the early 20th century was diverse, consisting of people from various backgrounds. The city attracted immigrants from Europe, Latin America, and the Caribbean, as well as African Americans migrating from other parts of the United States. This diversity contributed to Miami’s rich cultural vibe. Racial segregation and discrimination were prevalent, with African Americans and other minority groups facing limited opportunities and social exclusion. Additionally, the rapid pace of development and urbanization often led to environmental degradation as natural habitats were cleared for construction and infrastructure projects.

Overall, Miami before the Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 was a dynamic and rapidly evolving city, characterized by population growth, economic expansion, cultural diversity, and real estate speculation. While the city experienced unprecedented prosperity and development, it also grappled with social inequalities, environmental challenges, and the risks associated with rapid urbanization. These factors set the stage for the catastrophic impact of the hurricane and its aftermath on Miami and its residents. 

Unknown Storm

Reports are conflicted as to whether Miami issued warnings. Some sources state that there were some warnings in the days leading up to the event, and residents of Miami disregarded the warnings, not understanding how catastrophic an event like this could be. Other sources say there were no warnings and that people were completely unaware that this was going to happen. During this time, storm warnings were centralized in Washington, D.C., and then distributed to other offices, like the weather office in Miami, so by the time they were aware of the event and sent out any type of warning, it would’ve been too late for citizens to be prepared. If there were warnings, they probably would’ve been sent out when residents were already asleep. A smaller hurricane earlier in July had served as a wake-up call for some, prompting a degree of preparation in the days leading up to the storm if they were warned. However, these efforts were insufficient to lessen the catastrophic impact of the impending hurricane. As the category four hurricane brewed in the Atlantic, the rudimentary forecasting technology of the time struggled to accurately predict the storm’s trajectory, leading many to underestimate the potential threat. The storm’s path avoided the normal channels of Caribbean information, so the hurricane was somewhat mysterious, with only a few ships reporting its existence. 

The Hurricane comes in

In the early hours of September 18th, 1926, the full force of the Great Miami Hurricane was unleashed upon the city. With winds exceeding 150 miles per hour and a storm surge towering 11 feet above high tide, the hurricane attacked Miami, leaving a trail of destruction in its wake. From South Beach to Lake Okeechobee and beyond to the Tampa Bay area and the northern Gulf Coast, no area of South Florida was spared from the storm. As the hurricane approached, the “eye” of the storm passed directly over Miami, bringing a temporary lull in the winds and rain. Many residents, unaware that the most dangerous part of the storm was yet to come, ventured outside during this brief period of calm. Many of these residents lost their lives. After the eye passed, the hurricane’s second half brought renewed fury to Miami and the surrounding areas. Powerful winds, heavy rain, and flooding caused widespread devastation, destroying buildings, homes, and infrastructure. The hurricane’s strong winds tore roofs off buildings, uprooted trees, and toppled power lines and utility poles. Debris became airborne, causing additional damage to structures and posing a significant danger to residents. The Great Miami Hurricane resulted in significant loss of life, with an official death toll reported at 372 people. However, some estimates suggest that the actual number of casualties may have been much higher, possibly reaching into the thousands. Along with that, there were 854 hospitalized. 2,000 homes were destroyed, and 3,000 more were damaged. Estimates of residents made homeless ranged from 25,000 to 47,000. Newspapers had headlines reading “Still Adding to List of Dead in Hurricane’s Wake” and highlighted how the number of deaths increased as bodies washed ashore afterwards.  The lack of preparedness and the rapid escalation of the hurricane caught both residents and weather officials off guard, worsening the loss of life and property. 

The Aftermath

In the days and weeks following the hurricane, relief and recovery efforts were launched to assist those affected by the disaster. People who promoted real estate in Miami didn’t like the publicity surrounding the disaster because it negatively impacted their businesses and the real estate industry. The Red Cross workers who were trying to come into help were initially hindered by these promoters, but donations started coming in, and they were able to start relief efforts. The hurricane left thousands of people homeless, injured, or displaced. Emergency shelters were set up to provide temporary housing and assistance to survivors. Relief agencies and volunteers worked tirelessly to provide food, water, medical care, and other essential supplies to those in need. 

Rebuilding efforts began almost immediately after the hurricane, as residents and authorities worked to repair and reconstruct damaged homes, buildings, and infrastructure. Miami was able to rebuild structurally in a few months, but financially, it would take years. Cleanup crews worked to clear debris and restore essential services. Entire neighborhoods were flattened, and debris littered the streets. Power lines were downed, water supplies were contaminated, and communication networks were severed. Businesses were destroyed, crops were ruined, and livelihoods were lost. 

In addition to the physical destruction, the hurricane showed the racial and socioeconomic disparities that were in Miami. African American neighborhoods got hit the hardest in the storm’s impact yet received disproportionately less assistance and were some of the last people to receive aid in the aftermath. They were also expected to clean up the damage caused by the storm.  

A Changed Landscape

The Great Miami Hurricane served as a wake-up call, exposing the vulnerabilities of a city built on rapid growth. After the disaster, efforts were made to strengthen building codes and improve disaster preparedness measures. Stricter regulations were put in place to ensure that buildings were better able to withstand the force of future hurricanes. This included requirements for reinforced structures, impact-resistant materials, and storm-resistant designs. The destruction caused by the hurricane prompted significant investments in infrastructure improvements. Roads, bridges, and utilities were rebuilt and reinforced to better withstand future storms. Drainage systems were also upgraded to reduce the risk of flooding during hurricanes and heavy rainfall events. The hurricane highlighted the importance of emergency preparedness and response in coastal communities. In the years following the disaster, Miami implemented comprehensive emergency management plans and established dedicated agencies and resources for disaster response and recovery. This included the development of evacuation routes, emergency shelters, and communication systems to better coordinate response efforts during hurricanes and other emergencies. The Great Miami Hurricane influenced urban planning and development policies in Miami. There was a greater emphasis on sustainable growth and resilient design principles to minimize the risk of damage from future storms. This included measures such as preserving green spaces, protecting natural habitats, and implementing smart growth strategies to reduce vulnerability to hurricanes and other environmental hazards. Even today, agencies like the U.S Army Corps of Engineers (ACE) are working to improve the Miami area’s storm surge defenses, including more infrastructure projects and financial assistance for floodproofing in homes and businesses. 

However, the economic devastation from the hurricane was extreme, triggering a downturn in the region’s fortunes. The storm’s impact reached far beyond the borders of Miami, foreshadowing the economic turmoil and social upheaval that would characterize the Great Depression. Florida, already shaken up  from the hurricane’s devastation, was ill-prepared for the subsequent economic downturn, which further worsened the suffering of its residents. In the next year, 1927, tourism was down and land buyers were defaulting on their payments. There was a small resurgence of tourism in land sales in 1928 and 1929, but it was short-lived because of the stock market crash in October of 1929. 

Conclusion

The Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 stands as a defining moment in the history of Miami and South Florida. The storm’s devastating impact showed the vulnerabilities of a city built on rapid expansion and development. Yet, from the disaster emerged a stronger, more resilient community, determined to rebuild and thrive in the face of adversity. The lessons learned from the hurricane continue to shape Miami’s approach to disaster preparedness and urban development, ensuring that the city remains better equipped to withstand future storms. Even today, this storm and others influence choices made to make Miami and South Florida more safe for residents and vacationers alike. Ultimately, the story of the Great Miami Hurricane is one of resilience, adaptation, and the enduring human spirit in the face of nature’s wrath.

If you are interested in this subject, here are some suggestions for further exploration.

The Great Miami Hurricane– The History Guy. This YouTube video talks about some other things going on at this time, as well as going more in-depth on the subject.

Harry and the Hurricane- Gordon Berg. A fun book (targeted for younger readers but could be enjoyed by anyone!) that describes a seven year old’s experience during the hurricane, and is based on the author’s dad.

Citations:

“Devastation in Miami from the 1926 Hurricane.” n.d. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. https://www.loc.gov/item/2021670726/.

Dumenil, Lynn. 1995. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York: Hill And Wang.

New Smyrna Daily News. 1926. “1926 Great Miami Hurricane. Miami, Fl. Headline Article – Tom Malmay,” September 21, 1926. https://www.newspapers.com/article/new-smyrna-daily-news-1926-great-miami-h/2385338/.

Steinberg, Theodore. 1997. “Do-It-Yourself Deathscape: The Unnatural History of Natural Disaster in South Florida.” Environmental History 2 (4): 414. https://doi.org/10.2307/3985607.

“The Hurricane of 1926 | American Experience | PBS.” n.d. Www.pbs.org. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/miami-hurricane-1926/.

US Department of Commerce, NOAA. n.d. “Great Miami Hurricane of 1926.” Www.weather.gov. https://www.weather.gov/mfl/miami_hurricane.

———. n.d. “NWS WFO/NHC Miami, FL History Page.” Www.weather.gov. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.weather.gov/mfl/floridahistorypage#Richard_Gray.

Jones, Marian Moser. “Tempest in the Forbidden City: Racism, Violence, and Vulnerability in the 1926 Miami Hurricane.” Journal of Policy History 26, no. 3 (June 9, 2014): 384–405. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0898030614000177.

1. https://www.mdpls.org/dc-blog-twentytwo-july ︎
2. https://www.palmbeachpost.com/story/news/2021/12/12/what-led-boom-and-bust-florida-real-estate-1920-s/8883053002/ ︎
3. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/miami-hurricane-1926/ ︎
4. https://genealogytrails.com/fla/miamidade/hurricaneof1926.html ︎
5. https://miamihistorychannel.com/south-florida-hurricanes-part-1/ ︎
6. https://www.mdpls.org/dc-blog-twentytwo-july ︎
7. https://www.mdpls.org/dc-blog-twentytwo-july ︎
8. https://www.weather.gov/images/mfl/history/marker.jpg ︎
9. https://www.mdpls.org/dc-blog-twentytwo-july ︎

The great Mississippi flood of 1927 remains one of the most devastating natural disasters in the history of the United States, but more specifically in the southern region. The Mississippi River overflowed and eventually reached unprecedented levels of water rising, causing widespread flooding that affected hundred and thousands of people and led to drastic economic and social consequences that would shake the very core of America. The Mississippi flood reached over 23,000 square miles of land that was submerged in water, displacing over 700,000 people and in the process, killing at least 1,000.

The Flood of 1927 was a result of heavy rainfall that occurred in the Mississippi in April of 1927, although signs of the flood started in January of that year. The Mississippi River is known as one of the largest and most popular river systems in North America, swelled to extreme record levels as a result of the excessive downpour during the spring season. The flooding began in late April and continued into May, affecting many states such as, Arkansa, Missouri, Kansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Illinois, and Texas. The river breached through the levees system and traveled through vast areas of land, which in turn would cause many people to evacuate and as a result would leave hundreds of thousands of people without a home.

The Flood of 1927 was a build up of poor land management that due to decades of bad practices to help prevent the flood that occurred, which at that time affected a rapid increase in population that lived in urban areas, and lack of infrastructure to control the river’s flow. The levee system was specifically designed to prevent flooding, it was not built to withstand the volume of water that was brought by the heavy rain, which was supposed to prevent disasters like this from occurring. Another element that was a cause of the flooding was the deforestation of the region, it led to increased soil erosion, further exacerbating the flooding. The federal government, was under the leadership of President Calvin Coolidge, who was slow to respond to the disaster that caused widespread flooding, while also causing destruction and hardships for many people during this time. The Flood of 1927 left a hopless impact on the southern United States, affecting millions of people. The people most affected by the flood were the farmers, because the flooding destroyed crops, homes, and infrastructure, and caused a huge economic impact not just on the region, but the entire United States. Many African American communities dealt with heavy racisim and were treated like outcasts, who were already marginalized and living in low-lying areas, that took the brunt of the disaster. The people who were displaced would seek shelter, make shift camps or flee to higher ground just to have some sort of safety from the flooding that ravaged through their towns.

The aftermath of the Mississippi flood of 1927 shined a light on the inequalities and racial disparities that African Americans were forced to face in the United States. Many African Americans were left to fend alone without access to food, water, or medical care, as most of the relief efforts focused on white communities. The federal government’s heavily failed the victims during the flood, but it did a horrific job when it left the African American community to survive without help. The inadequate response to the disaster highlighted these inequalities, as resources were lopsidedly allocated based on race, social, and economical status. In a way, the flood helped showcase just how far behind America was when it came to the treatment of its people (especially African American). The flood in a weird way was just like the racism America would bury on African Americans and pretend like they didn’t exist, just as the flood covered the land that was once visible with grass, streets, and homes.

People

One of the most important people during the Flood of 1927 was Herbert Hoover, who was serving as the Secretary of Commerce. Hoover was in charge of providing and coordinating the federal response to the disaster by President Coolidge to help bring relief to the people most affected by the flood. Despite the slow and initial delays in providing aid, Hoover eventually had enough resources and established the Mississippi River Commission. Hoover would travel through the Mississippi Valley to help raise money for the relief efforts to help start the rebuild of the states affected by the flood. He raised over 17 million dollars (equivalent to 239.50 million today). All of the hard work that Hoover put in to help would not go unrecognized because it was a crucial step, that eventually lead to him being elected as the 31st president of the United States in 1929. Although, many people still claim that Hoover didn’t really help aid the states damaged by the floods, instead gained as much power as possible.

The most important influential figure during the flood was James Eads, a highly regarded engineer who had experience working on many river projects in the Mississippi Valley. James specialized in hydraulic engineering and levee construction, which proved to be priceless and much needed during the crisis. The designs he created made for a much better levees with more strength and it would mitigate the impact of the flooding in certain parts of the river. The contributions that James Eads had on the flood control would help launch the groundwork for future natural disasters that can be prevented to help stop flooding. It also helped provide a much needed safety practices that were once failing to meet quality standards, to help ensure that a disaster like this can be avoided.

The third important figure who emerged during the aftermath of the Flood of 1927 was Robert Russa Moton, was an African American teacher and civil rights activist. Moton was appointed by President Coolidge to lead the Colored Advisory Commission, he was tasked with providing and overseeing relief efforts for African American flood victims. Moton was one of the few people who fought for equal treatment and access to aid for all people, communities, regardless of race. His efforts helped draw much needed attention to the racial inequalities that the flood exposed and paved the way for everyone to take action help start a change in America.

Just like James Eads, Arthur E. Morgan who specialized in flood managment, was an engineer and public administrator who played an important role in shaping water resource policies in the United States, to assist in preventing disaster like floods from taking place. Morgan was the chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority and he would oversee all safety procedures and practices that were taking place in his assigned region. Eventually Morgan would become head of the Public Works Administration, where he implemented major design and ideas to many projects in order to prevent future flooding disasters. Morgan’s visionary approach was ahead of it’s time and would change the way flood control emphasized sustainable practices, as well as have communities being involved, which spearheaded the foundation for modern water management strategies that are still used to this very day.

Technology and Social Justice

The Flood of 1927 is famous for destroying homes, killing thousands, and displacing over a million people from their homes, but it also highlights social justice, as well as environmental concerns. Environmentalists during this time issued the flood as a warning sign of the consequences that unchecked development can cause on when it came to deforestation in vulnerable areas. The key to having a successful operation is by having sustainable land management practices and investments in flood control infrastructure that will help prevent or drastically aid in avoiding disasters in the future. People who fought for social justice have highlighted the racial disparities exposed by the flood, showcasing the need for equality by providing equal help to all people not just a certain race. Relief efforts during this period were unfair and cruel because the government was more concerned about the white community instead of all people who were affected.

The flood allows to focus on future developments related to flood management and being able to plan for disasters in a timely manner. That will be crucial and critical in preventing future events that can cause devastating effects. Through the many years of advances in technology, there are much better practices in place to help mitigate such disasters than ever before, but it doesn’t mean that it can’t happen again. Technology uses equipment such as remote sensing which can help detect early warning signs when something seems off or is in the territory of causing destruction, which in turn can lead to using predictive modeling in order to better prepare for a disaster that is going to occur. There needs to be substantial urban planning when it comes to flooding because urban areas are at the most risk when it comes to flood zones. Additionally, having community engagement and more government involvement or funding that would be an essential step in developing resilient communities that can withstand natural disasters, while also being able to adapt in any circumstance.

Timeline

• April 15, 1927 – Flooding starts to occur and leaves and its tributaries can’t withstand anymore of the downpour, leading to widespread devastation with water covering miles of land and destroying everything in its path.
• April 16, 1927 – President Calvin Coolidge appoints Herbert Hoover to oversea the disaster caused by the flooding, while also bringing federal aid to the communities.
• April – May 1927 – Engineers from the army corp were called upon to help reinforce levee systems, as well as the national guard who was called upon to provide emergency services and rescue operations for flood victims, while also providing them with aid.
• May 1927 – Floodwaters began to recede, which showed the effects of the devastation it left behind, and the focus switched to helping people get aid, shelter or medical assistance to the effected communities.
• June 1927 – Repair efforts were on the way to help rebuild communities which was supported by federal funding assistance and many charitable organizations.
• Summer – Fall 1927 – Reconstruction of the communities would continue and a new levee system was being built to prevent future flooding with the help of a few renowned engineers.

Significance

The 1920s also known as “the roaring twenties” was a time where culture was changing, the economy was booming, jazz music was at its peak, companies created new products such as washing machines and radios, and women were become independent. Even though the 1920s is known as one of the best decades America has ever seen, it still came with many flaws. Social justice was none existent during this time except for a few brave civil rights activists who fought for African American rights. When the flood occurred it showcased just how poorly the African community was being treated, and were the last one’s to receive aid from the government causing hardships and isolation for people of color. Since this time we have come along way as a nation with everyone being equal, sure there needs to be some more changes, but this is a significant sign we are headed in the right direction for people of all races. Even though the economy was booming the late 1920s, it would take a hit because of the flooding that took place. Many farmers during this time lost their livelihood’s because their land and crops had been destroyed. This is significant because even during the most recent disasters, the economy will most likely take a hit because of the relief effort and the massive funding needed to help rebuild many communities that are effected by such floods. This leads us to environment awareness because before the flood occurred, cities were not taking proper steps to ensure land management which in turn lead to thousand of lives being lost and millions losing their homes. The flood helped show how important it is to be prepared, have a plan, improve technology and build better infrastructures to help prevent flooding. We see the significant role environmental awareness plays in our society today, even world leaders spend millions upon millions to help fight the battle of global warming, but more importantly we see the policies and changes America has made for it’s people to be united, as well as make drastic changes to help be prepared to fight or prevent natural disasters that might occur in the future.

Resources

Anon. The Mississippi Flood of 1927 -. https://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/the-mississippi-flood-of-1927.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2009. Mississippi River flood of 1927 | Description & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. 11. February. https://www.britannica.com/event/Mississippi-River-flood-of-1927.

National Guard. The Great Flood of 1927.

 Anon. A retreat fit for a president – Lesson 1.

NOLA.com. 2016. 1927 Mississippi River flood in rare vintage film. Video. YouTube. 15. March. 

Thornton, Mark. 2020. Katrina and the Great Flood of 1927. Mises Institute. 21. December. 

Anon. Arthur Morgan. Dayton Innovation Legacy. 

In 1929, New York City filled the air with the heat and beat of classic Jazz. Many filled the nights with laughter, endless sleep, and dancing. Through all of New York, its popularity and lifestyle had seized the dream of millions. The city of lights that filled each street corner captured a significant historical moment. Even so, not everyone shared this beautiful moment and enjoyed the music when clubs continued to peak in popularity. Instead, lying in the dark streets, areas where police did not patrol, and ignorant of the possibilities, Albert Fish, also known as the “Moon Maniac“, filled the streets with evil. In the darkness, Albert Fish stalked his victims and did not hesitate to take away their life, a life that could have been long-lived. Still, New York’s streets held significant importance to our generation but avoided highlighting the potential danger that awaited. 

Albert Fish grew up in Washington, DC. There, he had found a lifestyle that suited him to a work life. Instead, Albert Fish’s childhood was filled with tremendous amounts of suffering. Albert Fish was the youngest in the family. He had three older siblings who later on contributed to his life of sadness. Among his family members, many were diagnosed with mental illnesses. His uncle, for example, had developed mania, while one of the two siblings was diagnosed with schizophrenia, and her sister was diagnosed with a “mental affliction” . Unfortunately for Albert, his suffering did not end there as later on in his life, many more came to be diagnosed with mental illnesses, one of them being his mother

The childhood of enjoyment and livelihood Albert Fish had wished to capture as a little boy was repeatedly redirected. Unfortunately, Albert was put in an orphanage where he spent most of his childhood. Albert Fish was physically abused in this Orphanage and grew up in an environment where he was fighting for his life. After years of countless abuse and neglect from those involved with the Orphanage, he was later taken out of the Thai environment by his mother. The history of abuse and negligence continuing in Albert Fish’s life has led to his mental corruption. Albert Fish was not only mentally broken but also started filling up a pool of hate and violence. 

In Albert Fish’s adult life, he took upon the opportunity for a field of change and decided to move to the city of opportunities, New York City, in 1890. Instead of living a life filled with opportunities and potential success, Albert Fish lived a life of evil. Albert Fish filled the streets of New York with terror and preyed on those who were vulnerable. Before his inhumane acts, he started by sexually assaulting male children. This was the beginning of what awaited Albert Fish. 

Little by little, his actions of violence began to grow, each becoming more brutal than the last encounter. Even so, the murder of Grace Budd was different from the other cases. Through the trails and mind of Albert Fish, he took the necessary steps to get away as a suspect.

The enjoyment and laughter that once filled the state of New York shifted into an environment of shock, filled with tension and sadness. The death of Grace Budd left many to wonder what happened to the 10-year-old child. In May 1928, Albert Fish introduced himself to the Budd family when he formally found interest in Grace Budd’s older brother. Albert Fish used another name to disguise his tracks when he decided to pursue his impulsive, horrific actions against Edward Budd. Soon after connecting with the Budd family, Albert Fish shifted his attention to Grace Budd after meeting her. After that encounter, Albert Fish did not hesitate to create a gate of opportunity to move his motives and scheming towards Grace Budd. With this shift of intention, Albert Fish seized the chance to take advantage of Grace Budd. The lies and deception had led to Albert Fish bringing Grace Budd to East Irvington, New York. In the abandoned house, there is where Albert Fish has committed the atrocious murder of Grace Budd, strangling the poor 10-year-old child Grace Budd to death.

1934 Wisteria Cottage building where Albert Fish claimed to murder Grace Budd and disassemble her body for cannibalistic motives

Unfortunately, as time has passed, the case has been apprehended due to multiple roadblocks. The only information and update investigators could follow up with was what appeared to be Grace Budd’s body. As stated in Brooklyn Daily Eagle on December 14, 1934, “…in Worthington Woods, between Ardsley and Elmsford, not far from where the skull of Grace Budd was found, unearthed other parts of a child’s skeleton, believed to be that of the Budd girl. Through the investigation, different pieces and bones were discovered from previous victims of Albert Fish. The ongoing investigation led to more discoveries about the older man Albert Fish and his horrendous actions behind closed doors.

Even though Albert Fish committed the crime in the year 1928, his deception and lies led to his avoidance of getting caught. Still, Albert Fish didn’t stop tormenting the Budd family. Even after the loss of a daughter, a friend, and a sister, Albert Fish would later, in the year 1934, send a letter to the Budd family anonymously, explaining all the horrific things he did to Grace Budd. In November 1930, the Budd family received a letter from Albert Fish. Even though Grace Budd’s disappearance has not been solved yet, receiving a letter jump started another investigation in hopes of finding closure to unanswered questions.

This letter that was sent to the family was a gateway opportunity for the parents to find out who had abducted Grace Budd. An investigator named King has successfully cracked the mystery of who the serial killer is. Through his success and findings, King tracked Albert Fish’s previous apartment, where he found other letters leading to a match. Now, the investigators knew the killer’s name, Albert Fish. Albert Fish’s luck had run out. The man who once terrorized the city would be put in ruins. He will be tracked and arrested for the heinous, inhumane crimes he has committed. On December 13, 1934, Albert Fish was caught and arrested for all the murders he had committed. 

To such an extent, the families and friends who were victims of Albert Fish’s awful murders will find some relief knowing that they have caught the man behind these killings. Unfortunately, those who have lost family or even a friend can not bear the loss. Rest assured, justice was brought to Albert Fish and served. On January 16, 1936, Albert Fish was executed by the electric chair. The streets of New York that once filled the horrors of Albert Fish were once replaced and slowly uplifted by the relief that a maniac wasn’t lurking in the dark areas of New York. 

Timeline of Albert Fish: Grace Budd Murder Case

https://www.sutori.com/en/story/albert-fish-grace-budd-murder-case–mcaUrwuKSAjAsS2YywaUt4zg

Bibliography: 

“Albert Fish.” Wikipedia, March 15, 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Fish. 

“Grace Budd: Albert Fish.” Newspapers.com. Accessed April 3, 2024. https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-brooklyn-daily-eagle-grace-budd-al/129753874/?locale=en-US.

Carney, Courtney Patterson. “Jazz and the Cultural Transformation of America in the 1920s.” LSU Scholarly Repository. Accessed April 3, 2024. https://repository.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations/176/#:~:text=Jazz%20greatly%20increased%20in%20popularity,defining%20the%20early%20twentieth%20century.