The opening of the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City was at the end of the 1920s. Scholars often note that the 1920s was a progressive era, and the museum helped with it being progressive. The museum’s origins were diverse because it was hiring racial and gender minorities, which would be considered unheard of during that era. Women and people from different backgrounds working at the museum helped cause the museum’s success. The museum’s original collection had a decent amount of contemporary art that was donated to, or purchased by, the museum. Art enthusiasts considered these paintings as new and revolutionary compared to typical art styles at the time. The MoMA currently sits as one of the most popular museums in New York and for art in general due to its success during the 1920s.

The original idea for the MoMA was in 1928 by three important women: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, Lillie P. Bliss, and Mary Quinn Sullivan, known collectively as “The Ladies”, who came up with the idea for the MoMA over lunch, as the story goes. On March 7, 1928, Lillie and Aldrich were at a social gathering in Jerusalem where apparently they came up with the idea.¹ They wanted a place where they could display the trendiest and newest art at that time, namely contemporary art. Abby Rockefeller wrote about why she wanted the museum in the first place, “I began to think of women whom I knew in New York City, who cared deeply for beauty and who bought pictures, women who would be willing, and had faith enough, to help start a museum of contemporary art.”² She wanted a place that she and other women would be able to experience and enjoy the arts. The Ladies were daughters and wives of some of America’s wealthiest families living in New York, with Abby being the daughter-in-law of John D. Rockefeller. “The Ladies” were able to pool together their resources along with inviting investors and succeeded in opening the MoMA on November 7, 1929. The founding director of the MoMA, Alfred H. Barr Jr. set a goal for the museum to be “the greatest museum of modern art in the world” by helping everyone, and not only art experts, to enjoy art by understanding it.³

The MoMA had a decently sized Board of Trustees that helped it during its first couple of years. Three major trustees who helped the MoMA during this time were A. Conger Goodyear, Paul J. Sachs, and Josephine Boardman Crane. A. Conger Goodyear was a railroad and lumber tycoonist who also was the MoMA’s first president. Goodyear had previous museum experience from working at the Buffalo Art Museum from 1912-1928. While working there at that time, he played fast and loose with the museum’s money to acquire artwork that the museum might not have acquired otherwise. His actions sparked some controversy among other trustees, which resulted in Conger being voted out of the Buffalo AKG Art Museum’s Board of Trustees.⁴ Aldrich Rockefeller wanted Conger to be president of MoMA due to his accomplishments at the Buffalo AKG Art Museum and his ability to acquire paintings that the MoMA probably could not. Paul J. Sachs was a professor at Harvard who helped finance the MoMA in its early years. As the Board was searching for a director of the museum, Sachs was the one to recommend one of his former students, Alfred H. Barr Jr. Sachs also donated to the museum some of his drawings from his early career. Josephine Boardman Crane helped the museum by donated her Russian art collection and also offered fiscal aid. Shortly before the grand opening of the MoMA, the Stock Market crash had just hit the world. But with the help of multiple trustees, the mere idea of the MoMA was not lost to the trash bin. Since all of the trustees came from rich families, they were able to provide help to the MoMA during this trying time.

The MoMA originally opened at a different location from where it currently stands. When the MoMA opened, it was located at the Heckscher Building on 730 Fifth Avenue, not on 11 West 53rd Street, which is two streets away from the Heckscher Building. The Heckscher Building was home to the MoMA for 3 years, until 1932 when they moved to a different building. The MoMA was located in the Heckscher Building for multiple reasons. The Heckscher Building was one of the very few skyscrapers (it would not be considered a skyscraper by today’s standards) in New York City and it had the reputation of being “The Tower of Trade.” Other famous establishments also were renting floors on the Heckscher Building, so the moniker had precedence. The fact that the Heckscher Building could be easily seen from anywhere in New York City, along with its prestigious reputation, made the location perfect for the MoMA.

The opening of the MoMA was not all sunshine and rainbows because John D. Rockefeller Jr. did not like Modern art. John D. Rockefeller Jr. was the son of John D. Rockefeller and husband to Aldrich Rockefeller. Although John D. Rockefeller Jr. did like art and was an art collector who helped fund the Cloisters—a museum designed to collect Medieval Art—John D. Rockefeller Jr. simply disliked Modern Art. Even though Aldrich Rockefeller was the founder of MoMA and played a very important role in it, John D. Rockefeller Jr. chose not to support the MoMA in its initial years. Although John D. Rockefeller Jr. disliked Modern Art and avoided it the best he could, he did not try to prevent his wife from acquiring pieces of Modern Art and yet he never paid for them.⁵ John D. Rockefeller Jr. was a Baptist, and in the 1920s Baptists preferred not to deal with secular art like Modern Art of the era. John D. Rockefeller Jr. was a conservative, and conservatives often disliked Modern Art from that era because it was challenging traditional norms. Though John D. Rockefeller Jr. did donate to the MoMA, it was not until later in the 1940’s. And due to his funding, the MoMA was then moved to its modern location where it is still standing today.

The original MoMA gallery contained paintings by Vincent van Gogh, Georges Seurat, Paul Cézanne, and Paul Gauguin. When the MoMA was created, it was not able to afford the purchase of any artwork; so instead, they received donations of artwork. Alfred H. Barr wanted the MoMA to display newer pieces instead of older, which was difficult since most of the MoMA’s collections were already over one hundred years old. Alfred H. Barr got rid of the older paintings by stating “a torpedo moving through time, its nose the ever advancing present, its tail the ever receding past of 50 to 100 years ago.”⁶ Alfred H. Barr was a Harvard professor who also loved contemporary art. During his time at Harvard, he helped to run the Harvard Society of Contemporary Art. In July, 1929, he was interviewed for the position of founding director, and on August 12, 1929, was accepted for the position.⁷ As its director, Barr sent Anson Goodyear—Anson being a member of the Board of Trustees—to travel to Europe to collect six paintings by van Gogh, Seurat, Cezanne and Gauguin, whose exhibition was very successful for both Barr and the MoMA.⁸

Themes of the 1920s

The 1920s was an era that challenged the old traditional norms from the previous era, the Victorian era. The Victorian era held strict social and gendered norms that favored traditionalism and did not like feminism. After the conclusion of the First World War, America challenged Victorian thought by consuming the works of modernist philosophers. It sparked such ideas as the New Women, a rise of secular culture, pluralism, and an expansion of new ways of thinking. The MoMA embodied the rise of modernism in America by connecting many of these themes to the MoMA in some way.

Vincent van Gogh, Georges Seurat, Paul Cézanne and Paul Gauguin were deliberately chosen to be the MoMA’s first exhibit. The reason was because all four of these painters were impressionist painters who also helped revolutionize the art world. Impressionism as a form of art is described as capturing the sense of time passing by with the changing of lighting, where the subject is often something found in the modern world such as a building, a crowd of people, a pier, or a park. Impressionism came about from the rejection of a previous form of art, which was supposed to be the accepted standard for art: Neoclassicism and Romanticism. Both forms of art are very similar to each other, in that they are typically still images of important historical events and subjects. The difference between these two forms of art lie in their treatments of the subjects. Neoclassicism is a rigid form of art based on the Greco-Roman form of art and favors historical scenes. Romanticism is a similar form but focuses on nature and the subject’s emotions. Impressionism is a rejection of those forms, just as the 1920s was a rejection of the Victorian values and norms. These painters all influenced the discipline of impressionism. And because the MoMA chose to display these painters’ works as its first exhibits, it showed everyone that they were going to revolutionize the enjoyment of art and what a museum should display in their exhibits.

Abby Rockefeller was a very important component in the creation of the MoMA. Out of the three founding women, Abby Rockefeller created, actively participated in, and did the most amount of work for the MoMA. Unlike most other women during that era who may later step out of the spotlight after creating a museum or let go of that idea, Abby was different. Abby was a member of the Board of Trustees and also was the MoMA’s treasurer. Due to her work in the MoMA, she gained new titles and responsibilities throughout her years. When she worked at the MoMA, she was often a negotiator between Barr and Goodyear due to their disagreements. Elsewhere in Abby’s life, she was a women’s suffragist and helped women with their economic and social disadvantages.  She was a member and chairwoman of the Young Women’s Christian Association for twenty years, and donated large amounts of money to them.⁹ She used her privileged status to help underprivileged women to have better lives and advocated for women’s progress. These traits the Abby presented are similar to historian Lynn Dumenil’s interpretation of the New Women.¹⁰ The New Women challenges traditional gender norms established in the Victorian age. Common people who challenged these notions of normalcy were known as flappers and women suffragists. It is the same to say that Abby Rockefeller is associated with the New Women due to her challenging of traditional gender norms of the 1920s.

The MoMA did not just hire white people but was a diverse place of employment. Though technically hired in the early 30s, Soichi Sunami, a Japanese-American photographer, showed that the MoMA embraced the ideals of modernism and pluralism founded in the 1920s. Soichi Sunami was a photographer who was a member of the Seattle Art Club, participated in multiple exhibits, and studied under painter John Sloan.¹¹ Soichi Sunami was the living embodiment of the MoMA’s focus on diversity of the 1920s. In the 1920s, many groups of people experienced a cultural and economic boom. Japanese Americans were one of those groups, due to their tight-knit families, their focus on education, along with their support of each other out of poverty. Soichi was born in Japan but lived in New York City for a long time. His talent caused him to be recognized, with Aldrich Rockefeller asking him to work at the MoMA in 1930 due to his successful career.¹² This caused him to have a very successful forty-year long career working at the MoMA.

Conclusion

The MoMA was one of the last events that occurred at the end of the 1920s. It was a radical idea that came about due to the climate of the 20s. The MoMA’s existence challenged the traditional Victorian social norms by predominantly displaying impressionist art, by the founders of the MoMA being all women, and by hiring diverse people. These decisions caused the MoMA to be the embodiment of the themes of the 1920s. Since these themes were entrenched in the MoMA’s identity, they fueled the success of the MoMA in the late 1920s early 1930s and to become the very successful museum as we know it today.

1. Kate Walbert, “Lillie P. Bliss, ” in Inventing the Modern: Untold Stories of the Women Who Shaped The Museum of Modern Art, ed. Ann Temkin and Romy Sliver-Kohn, (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2024) 64 ︎
2. Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, “MoMA through Time,” MoMA, accessed Apr 21, 2026, https://www.moma.org/interactives/moma_through_time/1920/three-women-have-a-vision/. ︎
3. “The Museum of Modern Art history,” MoMA, accessed April 21, 2026, https://www.moma.org/about/mission-statement/history#:~:text=In%20the%20late%201920s%2C%20three,Its%20founding%20director%2C%20Alfred%20H. ︎
4. “A. Conger Goodyear” Buffalo AKG Art Museum, accessed April 30, 2026, https://buffaloakg.org/person/conger-goodyear ︎
5. David Rockefeller, interviewed by Sharon Zane, transcript, January 17 1991, The Museum Of Modern Art Oral History Program. https://buffaloakg.org/person/conger-goodyear ︎
6. Alfred H. Barr Jr. “Time” MoMA, accessed on April 21, 2026, https://www.moma.org/interactives/moma_through_time/1920/starting-a-collection-from-scratch/ ︎
7. Sybil Gordon Kantor, Alfred H. Barr, Jr., and the Intellectual Origins of the Museum of Modern Art, (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002) 211. ︎
8. Kantor, Origins of MoMA 190-214. ︎
9. “Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, 1874-1948,” Rockefeller Archive Center, accessed on March 31, 2026. https://rockarch.org/resources/about-the-rockefellers/abby-aldrich-rockefeller/
   ︎
10. Lynn Dumenil, Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 99. ︎
11. Kathy Muir, “Soichi Sunami,” Seattle Camera Club, accessed April 30, 2026, https://www.seattlecameraclub.com/soichi_sunami.html ︎
12. Muir, “Soichi Sunami,” Seattle Camera Club, accessed April 30, 2026, ︎

Bibliography and Suggested Resources

“A. Conger Goodyear.” Buffalo AKG Art Museum. accessed April 30, 2026.

“Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, 1874-1948.” Rockefeller Archive Center. accessed on March 31, 2026.

Barr, Alfred H. Jr. “MoMA through Time.” Museum of Modern Art . accessed on April 21, 2026.

Dumenil, Lynn. Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. (New York: Hill and Wang. 1995)

Kantor, Sybil Gordon. Alfred H. Barr, Jr., and the Intellectual Origins of the Museum of Modern Art. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002)

Muir, Kathy. “Soichi Sunami.” Seattle Camera Club. accessed April 30, 2026.

Rockefeller, Abby Aldrich. “MoMA through Time.” Museum of Modern Art. accessed Apr 21, 2026.

Rockefeller, David. interviewed by Sharon Zane, transcript, January 17 1991, The Museum Of Modern Art Oral History Program.

“The Museum of Modern Art history.” Museum of Modern Art. accessed April 21, 2026.

Walbert, Kate. “Lillie P. Bliss. ” in Inventing the Modern: Untold Stories of the Women Who Shaped The Museum of Modern Art. ed. Ann Temkin and Romy Sliver-Kohn. (New York: The Museum of Modern Art. 2024)

J Pelar

Josh Pelar is a History student at Ramapo College of New Jersey.

For a second time, The Jazz Singer plays again. There is more to be discussed with this film in terms of the themes of The Modern Temper, as it focuses on secularism. These themes are presented throughout the film, and are important to the message it gives to the audience.

The biggest theme shared with both mediums is the push-and-pull relationship between religion and modernity. Religion became less popular as secularism rose, causing religious groups, like Judaism, attempting to change in order to appeal to the younger generation.

Reform Judaism proposed “Reconstrictionism,” which “[de-emphasized] the belief in the supernatural, the ideas of Jews as a chosen people, and adherence to archaic Jewish law.”¹ On the other hand, more traditional sects, “modified the traditional orthodoxy of Southern and Eastern European parents to make it more palatable to modern Americans.”² As a result, there were people who joined synagogues and contributed to Judaism through donations.

The Modern Temper also discusses how “Jewish identity became for them a semisecularized form of ethnicity,” which does reflect in The Jazz Singer.³ Judaism is a core identity of Jack Robin, the main character, and he does struggle with choosing religion or modernity. In the end, he does choose performing at the synagogue in place of his father over performing on Broadway, reflecting Judaism staying strong in the United States, despite the film ending with him performing on the stage.

Surprisingly, what the film does not touch upon is the rampant anti-Semitism throughout the period. Even before the 1920s, Jewish people were seen as lesser than due to nativism, and their religion and practices were referred to as “alien” and “outlandish.”⁴ As a result, hostility against Jewish people rose as they were discriminated against socially and economically. Additionally, conspiracy theories against Jews were rampant, such as claims of “most nation-states [being] strongly influenced if not completely controlled by Jews” and the claims of Jewish people controlling the banking system.⁵

Despite the rampant anti-Semitism, The Jazz Singer doesn’t feature any commentary on it. While it, arguably, would have made the themes of the film slightly convoluted, it wouldn’t be a bad thing. It would have made for a more intriguing story if there were a comment or two of distrust made by one of his peers, making his choice more difficult. It would also give more to discuss about the film in terms of its contemporary look on Jewish people rather than simply a divide between secularization and religion.

Overall, while secularism and religion are the driving themes in The Jazz Singer, there’s not much to the film besides that. The relationship between Jack and his Judaism is shallow, and while Jewish people do have a history with vaudeville, it’s not extremely crazy to say that the story would have been drastically different if the main character were a different religion, such as Catholic.

While it holds up as the first ever film with dialogue, there’s not much more past the conflict of religion, and there are stories created after this film that likely do this plotline better.

Footnotes

1. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 175. ︎
2. Dumenil, 176. ︎
3. Dumenil, 176. ︎
4. Dumenil, 214. ︎
5. Dumenil, 216. ︎

Bibliography

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, 2007.

Eryn Argonza

Eryn is a Ramapo College sophomore majoring in History and minoring in Museum Studies.

Overview

Production

The Vitaphone was invented and utilized to create synchronized sound, and was the key tool that made production of The Jazz Singer possible. Originally developed by Bell Laboratories, this device could record and play back sound that was synchronized with a film reel, and amplify that sound throughout a room, provided the audio could be played within it.

On October 6th, The Jazz Singer was released in theaters. Directed again by Alan Crosland it was the first film to utilize synchronized sound and dialogue. However, the public reaction to the film was lukewarm compared to Don Juan. Robert E. Sherwood states that “[it] has a good idea (taken from Sam Raphaelson’s play), but it has been hoked and sugared to a regrettable extent; and Al Jolson as an actor on the screen is only fair.”³

Despite this less than favorable reception, the film showed that synchronized dialogue was possible, and it wasn’t long until films, such as Lights of New York, made use of synchronized dialogue throughout its entire runtime, putting silent films to rest.

Film Summary

The film starts with Cantor Rabinowitz, who represents traditions and religion. He is awaiting his son, Jackie Rabinowitz, who will sing the Koi Nidre for the synagogue. Sara Rabinowitz, Jackie’s mother and the canton’s wife, suggests that maybe Jackie doesn’t wish to be a Cantor. However, he refuses such a notion and suggests he must be a Cantor because it’s tradition to do so.

While this is happening, Jackie, as a young boy, is performing at a local saloon. He represents modernization and secularism. He is then caught by one of his fathers friends, who alerts Cantor Rabinowitz before he goes to take Jackie back home. Jackie threatens to run away if he gets whipped, and does so after he is punished by his father. Later, at the Yom Kippur service, Cantor Rabinowitz denounces Jackie as his son.

Years later, Jackie changes his name to Jack Robin and is now a jazz singer. He is not famous, but his singing of “Dirty Hands, Dirty Face” and “Toot, Toot, Tootsie” leads to him meeting a woman named Mary Dale, someone who’s been on the stage. She compliments his voice and offers to help him get famous.

As that happens, Cantor Rabinowitz is instructing another child on being a cantor as Sara reads a letter from Jack about how he’s currently doing. After the child leaves and tells Sara that the Cantor is angry, she decides to tell him about how Jack is doing. It’s baffling she’s saddened after he denounces Jack once again, as she should have figured telling him would make things worse, but I suppose it’s her life.

After traveling from Portland to Chicago, Mary lands a lead role for a musical in New York City, leaving Jack behind in Chicago. A few minutes later, Jack also lands a role for a musical in New York City and travels there. Back at home, Cantor Rabinowitz celebrated his 60th birthday, and Jack returns home to find his father teaching a class on being a cantor, while his mother works in the kitchen. Sara and Jack hug and catch up before his father catches him. For a third time, his father is upset at Jack for being different, they argue, and Jack leaves the house for a second time.

After that, it showcases April Follies, the musical Jack and Mary are performing in. He’s shocked by her appearance, and rehearsal continues normally. However, Cantor Rabinowitz is sick in bed, and Jack finds out through his father’s friend. He now has to make the choice between performing at the synagogue in place of his dad, or performing on Broadway, which tears him apart before he makes his final decision.

After a few talks with Mary, meeting his mother once again, and seeing his father on his death bed, he ultimately decides to disappear on opening night and sing at the synagogue. This makes his father happy before he dies, and mends Jack’s internal rift between religion and modernity. After the fact, despite being told he would never have another job on Broadway again, the film ends with him performing “My Mammy” on the stage at a later date.

Significance 

Religion and Assimilation

The major conflict within The Jazz Singer is Jack wanting to be a jazz vocalist, while his father wants him to be a cantor. This is reflective of not only secularization, but assimilation as well. The 1920s brought upon change to society, which made Americans more secular. This contributed to poor attendance in various religious institutions and “eroding support for missionary activities.”⁴ As a result of this decline, religions had to change in order to keep with the times and keep attendance rates up.

One way Judaism changed, especially more Conservative congregations, was to modify their “traditional orthodoxy of their Southern and Eastern European parents to make it more palatable to modern Americans.”⁵ Despite it not working as well as they hoped, these attempts to assimilate and appeal to the American public reflect upon Jack’s character in The Jazz Singer as he tries to pursue the theater.

One of the major ways this is shown is Jack’s name, as he was originally named Jacob Rabinowitz. Being the son of a Jewish immigrant, he decided to anglicize his name in an attempt to fit in with the rest of American society. This practice still happens today; immigrants and their children anglicize their names in the United States, typically to fit in in a crowd of mainly white-sounding names. My mother comes to mind as an example; she tells restaurant workers that her name is “Maya” in order to make writing and calling her name easier.

Jack also attempts to appeal to the 1920s public by pursuing the career of a jazz singer instead of a cantor, like his father. This does paint Jack as being secular against his father’s religion, especially as the film shows Jack striving away from being a cantor, reflecting upon the attitude towards religion in the 1920s.

Additionally, the film’s climax shows Jack abandoning the theater to sing at the synagogue, before ending the film with a performance on stage, showing that religion is only a fraction of life, as Jack pursues his goal of being a jazz singer at the end of all. Times change, the world becomes more modern, and Jack is a representation of an assimilationist who, ultimately, decided against Judaism in favor of a more American lifestyle.

Racism

Besides the conflict between an immigrant father and his American-born son, one of the biggest points of The Jazz Singer is Jack’s use of blackface throughout the film. This is likely because “one of the functions of blackface was to offer whites a mask that allowed them to be more expressive than the Victorian norm permitted whites.”⁶ It was also seen as the norm within Vaudeville entertainment, since it derived itself from minstrel shows, where white actors utilized blackface in order to portray racial stereotypes of African Americans.

Additionally, it does make sense considering that anti-Semitism was rampant during the 1920s, especially considering that a handful of immigrants at the time were Jewish people attempting to assimilate into a Protestant country. Jewish people were one of the many groups targeted by the Klu Klux Klan.

I’m not trying to defend blackface. It’s completely acceptable to be uncomfortable with the film’s use of blackface, especially considering The Jazz Singer is accredited with being the film that killed the silent film industry without the other parts of it being mentioned. However, modern audiences should not only be aware of blackface being a prevalent part of The Jazz Singer, but draw their own understanding of why it’s being utilized. There were unfortunate norms during the 1920s, as stated above when discussing Vaudeville as a successor to minstrel shows. On the other hand, Jews were also an oppressed group during the 1920s, meaning Rogin’s interpretation of intersectionality may not be entirely wrong.
At the end of the day, it’s up to audience interpretation as to their thoughts on the presence of blackface within The Jazz Singer. However, the average person in the modern day may agree that it is used to harm instead of connecting with black people.

Reflection of Culture

The Jazz Singer, alongside showcasing assimilation and racism, “reflected and reinforced the consumer culture” of the time.⁸ This is blatantly shown in the film, as the protagonist is pursuing the job of a jazz vocalist. He sings to entertain an audience, which, as stated before, is a point of conflict between him and his father.

This career choice directly reflects upon the way society consumed material goods, especially after the Victorian Era, which promoted traditionalism and restraint. After World War I, societal values began to lax and become open minded in comparison to upholding traditional values. This included secularism, causing those who finished a day at work to have free time on their hands that attending a religious service, such as a sermon, would typically fill.

Since workers didn’t wish to attend religious service, especially as religion began to be pushed farther and farther from society’s minds, consumerism began to fill the void as the 1920s continued on, which has managed to seep into the modern day. As more material goods and services began pandering to a broader public, such as the sale of cars to the everyday worker, there was a sense of abundance that increased the demand for these products among citizens.

This influx in demand created even more goods and services to be created, such as nightclubs and theaters, especially as business owners attempted to cash in on the buzz around such services. This opens up more opportunities for the public to experience these services, ultimately fueling the cycle of consumerism. Jack isn’t an expedition to this cycle, as the career he pursues directly helps to keep it a well-oiled machine. Both in the sense that the film is being released in theaters and Jack himself is a jazz singer, which is one of the many performances people would pay to see.

Although he does perform at the synagogue, he still returns to the theater to sing jazz after his father passes. Religion plays a part in his life, but he still prioritized theater, showcasing secularism and his willingness to continue the cycle of consumerism, whether he knows it or not.

The 1920s and Beyond

At the end of the day, the 1920s as a whole is looked back on with fondness, including the entertainment industry. This has manifested as tributes over the years, with films such as Singin’ in the Rain paying homage to the shift towards dialogue within films.

However, there should still be acknowledgement of The Jazz Singer’s story and how it reflects the 1920s at the time of its production. There’s more to the time period than the entertainment it provides, as there are examples of modernism with Jack’s character and reflections of culture in the job he pursues. Additionally, there’s the issue of racism with the film’s use of blackface and a conflict between religion and secularism that manages to provide the best of both worlds via a mix of a happy ending for both sides at the end of the film.

While it’s not a worldwide event such as the stock market crash, The Jazz Singer is still an intriguing window into the way the people of the 1920s reflected upon changing societal norms and problems.

Citations

Bibliography

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, 2007.

Hall, Mordaunt. “VITAPHONE STIRS AS TALKING MOVIE: New Device Synchronizing Sound With Action Impresses With Its Realistic Effects. NOTED MUSICIANS HEARD Provides Orchestral Accompaniment to Photoplay “Don Juan” With John Barrymore.” New York Times (1923-), 1926. https://ramapo.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/vitaphone-stirs-as-talking-movie/docview/103776000/se-2. 

Koszarski, Richard. “Vitaphone’s First Night.” MoMA 2, no. 2 (1989): 16–17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4381092. 

Sherwood, Robert E. “The Silent Drama.” Life 90 (1927): 24 

Rogin, Michael. “Blackface, White Noise: The Jewish Jazz Singer Finds His Voice.” Critical Inquiry 18, no. 3 (1992): 417–53. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343811. Tankel, Jonathan D. “The Impact of The Jazz Singer on the Conversion to Sound.” Journal of the University Film Association 30, no. 1 (1978): 21–25. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20687409.

Footnotes

1. Richard Koszarski, “Vitaphone’s First Night,” MoMA 2, no. 2 (1989): 17. ︎
2. Mordaunt Hall, “VITAPHONE STIRS AS TALKING MOVIE: New Device Synchronizing Sound With Action Impresses With Its Realistic Effects. NOTED MUSICIANS HEARD Provides Orchestral Accompaniment to Photoplay “Don Juan” With John Barrymore,” New York Times (1923-),(1926): 6. ︎
3. Robert E. Sherwood, “The Silent Drama,” Life 90 (27 October 1927): 24. ︎
4. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, (2007): 170. ︎
5. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, (2007): 176. ︎
6. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, (2007): 95. ︎
7. Michael Rogin, “Blackface, White Noise: The Jewish Jazz Singer Finds His Voice,” Critical Inquiry 18, no. 3 (1992): 430. ︎
8. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, (2007): 94. ︎

Eryn Argonza

Eryn is a Ramapo College sophomore majoring in History and minoring in Museum Studies.

The Jazz Singer is one of the most influential films in history due to its use of synchronized sound in a feature-length movie. However, there is much more to unpack when it comes to the film and its various themes, such as how it reflects upon work and consumerism in the 1920s. The book actually touches upon this film, stating it “reflected and reinforced the consumer culture” of the time.¹ However, in order to understand what The Modern Temper means by The Jazz Singer being a prime example of consumer culture, we have to understand what consumer culture was like back then.

Overall, consumer culture came as a turning point away from “the Victorian “production” ethos of work, restraint, and order.”² This came as a result of cultural pluralism, commercialization, and changing social values, and with The Jazz Singer, one has to look at how leisure and consumption were practiced, specifically among white-collar workers.

As a result of more material goods being sold to a wider audience, there was a sense of abundance that resonated within the United States. There were also various nightclubs and movies one could go to, along with sports gaining popularity during the 20s.³ This fed the cycle of consumerism, as Americans would spend money and entrepreneurs began to cash in on the various trends of the decade through new establishments and advertisements.

When it came to how the middle class, white-collar workers participated in leisure and consumption, there was a sense of “self-expression and self-realization through consumption and leisure.”⁴ This meant they could find satisfaction in consumption rather than work, or even religion, leading to money being put towards material goods and entertainment, perpetuating the cycle of consumerism. This is where The Jazz Singer comes in, as it is portrays what made consumer culture into what it was at the time, such as the main character’s job choice of a jazz singer, which correlates with how entertainment was prominent during the 1920s.⁵ As a result, this film helps encapsulate how leisure was important to society back then, as the audience helped to perpetuate consumerism.

In addition to showing what consumer culture was like back in the 20s, this film shows a change in ideas through the lens of a second-generation Jewish person. Throughout the film, Jack, the main character, wants to become an entertainer, and yet his father, a Jewish cantor, wants him to follow in his footsteps.⁶ Although not a revolutionary idea to create a movie out of, this helped normalize the idea of immigrants and immigrant stories within the American population. However, it does also call back to older ideas such as blackface, as Jack utilizes it in his performances. This calls back to minstrel shows, which are a product of racism, and the use of blackface only sustains racist stereotypes.

Overall, when looking at The Jazz Singer and its historical context, a viewer can see that the film is not only famous for its use of sounds, but reflects the societal view of leisure and entertainment during the 1920s. The film is a product of its time, and while it’s not as grand as the Stock Market Crash, it still gives insight into the culture of the time.

Footnotes

1. Dumenil, Lynn, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, 94. ︎
2. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 57. ︎
3. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 77. ︎
4. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 85. ︎
5. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 94-95. ︎
6. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 94. ︎

Bibliography

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, 2007.

Eryn Argonza

Eryn is a Ramapo College sophomore majoring in History and minoring in Museum Studies.

Don Juan is a 1926 American silent film directed by Alan Crosland and produced by Warner Bros.  It stars John Barrymore in the title role of the legendary Spanish seducer and womanizer, Don Juan. The film follows a legendary Spanish lover as he pursues romantic adventures and duels with rivals in 16^th century Spain.  The film begins with Don Juan, the protagonist, seeking to avenge the death of his father by challenging “Count de Polan” to a duel.  After defeating Polan, Don Juan is wounded but manages to escape with the help of his loyal servant, Pedrillo.  Fleeing to a nearby monastery for refuge, Juan encounters a beautiful novice named Adrianna and is instantly smitten by her, however Adrianna has taken a vow of chastity and rebuffs his advances.  Undeterred, Don Juan continues his escapades, charming and seducing numerous women along the way.  He also becomes entangles in a political conspiracy involving the King of Spain, who suspects him of treason.  Juan’s adventures lead him to encounter various characters, including a jealous husband, a vengeful suitor, and a lecherous Duke among others.  As the story unfolds, Don Juan’s pursuit of Adrianna becomes more desperate, and he faces numerous challenges in his quest to win her heart. Ultimately, Don must confront his own reckless behavior and come to terms with the consequences of his actions.

Don Juan is considered a commercial and critical success since its release in 1926, and it remains a landmark film in the history of cinema, and a film that has made a significant impact on the development of the motion picture industry. Don Juan was also one of the most expensive films made up to that time, with a budget of over one million dollars.  The film’s lavish sets, costumes, and special effects were highly praised by critics and audiences alike. In addition to Barrymore, the film features a talented cast of actors, including Mary Astor, Warner Oland, and Myrna Loy in one of her earliest film appearances.

The premiere of Don Juan was a star-studded event that took place on August 6, 1926, at the Warner Bros. Theater in New York City.  The event was attended by many celebrities of the time, including John Barrymore, as well as Gloria Swanson, Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, and Charlie Chaplin who were all stars of the era.  The premiere was a highly anticipated event, due to it being the first film with synchronized sound effects and musical score.  The event was covered extensively by the press, and fans lined the streets to catch a glimpse of the stars as they arrived.  The film was well-received by the audience, who were impressed by the film’s innovation, technology, and advanced style for the time.  The Warner Bros. Theatre was located at 1700 Broadway in New York City, and had a seating capacity of around 3,500 people.  It was one of the largest and most luxurious theaters of the time and was equipped with all of the latest technologies of the era.  The theater remained a popular venue for several decades, hosting many premieres and events over the years until it was demolished in 1952.  The exact number of people that attended the premiere of Don Juan is unknown, but it is estimated that it was a fully sold out event hosting at least 3,400 people.  The success of the film in its initial run at the box office demonstrated the potential profitability of sound films and encouraged studios to invest in sound technology. Don Juan pushed the boundaries of what was possible in film production, and use of technologies at this time.

Significance

The film is notable for a number of reasons.  It was the first feature-length film with synchronized sound effects, including a synchronized musical score and sound effects in selected scenes.  However, it did not include any spoken dialogue, as that technology was not yet available. The production of Don Juan (1926) required the development of new technology, including the Vitaphone, elaborate special effects (for the time), and advanced camera techniques.  These advancements paved the way for future innovations in filmmaking. 

The film used a sound-on-disc system called the Vitaphone, which synchronized a 16-inch phonograph record with the film’s projection.  The record contained the synchronized musical score and sound effects that were played back during the film’s screening.  The synchronization was achieved by timing the playback of the sound disc with the projection of the film, using a special device called a “projector interlock”.  A projector interlock refers to a safety mechanism in film projectors that prevents multiple projectors from running at the same time, which could have caused damage to film prints at the time.  The interlock system was designed to ensure that only one projector would be running during a film screening.

Vitaphone allowed films to add synchronized sound to a motion picture.  It was developed by the Western Electric Company and was introduced in 1926, in the fil Don Juan.  The system was used primarily in the 1920’s and early 30’s, before it was surpassed by better technology.  Many classic films from this period, such as The Jazz Singer (1927) and The Singing Fool (1928), used the Vitaphone system to add synchronized sound to their musical number and sound effects. However, because the Vitaphone system relied on separate sound discs, it was limited in its ability to incorporate dialogue, and films using this system remained silent with musical accompaniment and sound effects.  It wasn’t until the development of sound-on-film technology in the late 1920’s that synchronized dialogue was invented, that films began to have dialogue sound. While the Vitaphone has been long surpassed by more advanced technology, many of the Vitaphone discs have survived and have been preserved, providing a unique glimpse into the early days of sound in cinema. This system was revolutionary at the time and paved the way for the development of sound in motion pictures. 

The 1920’s was a decade known for its cultural, social, and political changes and the film reflected some of the attitudes and values of the time.  It also reflected attitudes and values of the time, as well as some of the challenges that people of the era faced.  One example of this is gender roles, such as the “male gaze”, where women were objectified and seen as objects of male desire.  This was a common attitude in the 1920’s, as traditional gender roles were being challenged and new forms of sexual expression were emerging. Another example is political instability.  The film’s plot revolves around political intrigue and the struggle for power between various factions. This was a representation of the political struggles of the 1920’s, as the aftermath of World War One and the economic challenges of the time created by social unrest and political tension.  A third example is economic prosperity and excess. The film’s lavish sets, costumes, and special effects were a reflection of the prosperity of the 1920’s, as the United States experienced a period of economic growth and prosperity.  The film’s excess reflected the era’s tendency towards extravagance and opulence.

John Barrymore’s portrayal of Don Juan also set a new standard for leading men in Hollywood.  He was suave, sophisticated, romantic, and his performance helped establish the archetype of the “silver screen” hero. The character of Don Juan, who was a legendary seducer and womanizer, became a popular figure in literature and drama throughout the 1920’s.  The film helped cement the character’s place in popular culture and inspired other films, plays, and novels that featured similar characters.

Sources

Hall, M. (1926, August 7). Vitaphone stirs as talking movie; new device synchronizing sound with action impresses with its realistic effects. noted musicians heard provides orchestral accompaniment to photoplay “Don Juan,” with John Barrymore. The New York Times. Retrieved April 11, 2023, from https://www.nytimes.com/1926/08/07/archives/vitaphone-stirs-as-talking-movie-new-device-synchronizing-sound.html

In The Good Old Days Of Classic Hollywood. (2015, June 25). The Classic Movie History Project Blogathon: Don Juan (1926 ) and the introduction to vitaphone. In The Good Old Days Of Classic Hollywood. Retrieved April 11, 2023, from https://crystalkalyana.wordpress.com/2015/06/25/the-classic-movie-history-project-blogathon-don-juan-1926-and-the-introduction-to-vitaphone/

A tale of romance and derring-do (with synchronized music and sound effects): A study of don juan (1926). Silver Screen Classics. Retrieved April 11, 2023, from https://silverscreenclassicsblog.wordpress.com/2021/06/26/a-tale-of-romance-and-derring-do-with-synchronized-music-and-sound-effects-a-study-of-don-juan-1926/

Wikimedia Foundation. (2023, April 4). Don Juan (1926 film). Wikipedia. Retrieved April 11, 2023, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Juan_(1926_film)

The main page, which features the “About Us” section of the ADSNY, has a section that includes their mission statement, board of directors, its leadership, a brief history of the society, and even a way to get in touch! The Art Deco Society of New York happens to be a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, and is also a member of the International Coalition of Art Deco Societies, or ICADS for short. As they are not motivated by making a profit, the ADSNY is able to focus more on educating viewers with factually correct information versus misleading articles and featuring more ads than information. Their brief history section about the society states that they were first founded in 1982 as a nonprofit organization. As previously mentioned, the ADSNY is not motivated by profit, and their main goal is to draw attention to and educate the public about the significance of Art Deco and the influence it had in the 1920s and 1930s.

Each article features a small bio about its author at the bottom, as every article is written by a different author. The main information highlighted includes their educational background, degree, and where they have worked in the past in their relative field(s). Most of the articles, especially the ones written about Art Deco design, feature multiple images, all with a quick description and a translation for its title, or important text, if necessary. Unfortunately, I do not see any links or citations showing the sources for the images shown in the websites’ articles. Also included in the articles are quotes from sources pertaining to the articles topic. For example, the article titled “Gone to Sea: The Art Deco Ocean Liners” features a quote from Everett Viez, who was a maritime historian.

All in all, the Art Deco Society of New York’s website is an excellent source for doing research about the Art Deco architecture, art, crafts, and interior design. Featured are different headings about Art Deco elements, and in each section are multiple articles written by authors and historians in their respective fields (i.e. architecture, history). The articles shown all feature captioned images, as well as a brief bio about the author and their credentials. Also included is a small collection of videos that explore Art Deco era events and topics, such as the 1939 World’s Fair. Lastly, a list of books that feature information about the Art Deco era is included. This list allows viewers to find a book more specific to what they are researching or would like to know more about.

Jacob Gonzalez

Jacob is a Communication Arts student at Ramapo College. Although creating custom merchandise and promotional products is his passion, he has a soft spot for discovering interesting and obscure history.

jgonzalezdesigns.myportfolio.com

When first going into this course and trying to identify the various events that took place during the 1920s, I had a very narrow focus on looking at the United States. However, a number of my peers opened my eyes by choosing to cover topics from all around the world including Greece, Egypt, and Russia. For example, I learned during the early 1920s, the Greco-Turkish War took place from 1919-1922. While the war may not seem as significant at first glance, I was able to see the cause of this War was correlated as an effect to World War One. I also learned about how one year later, in 1923, King “Tut” Tutankhamun’s tomb was exhumed. This influenced many industries that are forms of art such as fashion, textiles, and jewelry. Another notable event or time period occurred in 1924, when Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, more commonly known as Lenin, died. His death rocked Russia as he was the founding leader of Soviet Russia, which during that period became the Soviet Union, from 1917 until 1924.

My advice to anyone interested in learning more about the 1920s is to open your eyes past notable events and individuals that occurred or lived in the United States. There is a great deal of culture that developed and many significant contributions that were made during this time in history. My views have changed from what I initially envisioned the 1920s to be. They have not necessarily shifted to thinking of whether my opinion on this decade was right or wrong, but rather it has expanded to look outside of the box from what I have heard during the one history class in high school that mentioned “The Roaring Twenties” to see how it shaped our current society, about one hundred years later.

Resources:

“History Milestone: The Greco-Turkish War.” Origins. https://origins.osu.edu/milestones/may-2019-greco-turkish-war-smyrna-sakarya-kemal-ottoman.

“King Tutankhamun: How a Tomb Cast a Spell on the World.” BBC Culture. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20191029-king-tutankhamun-the-tragic-cause-of-the-pharaohs-cult.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.

Experts Think It May Give a Version of the Flood and of the Oppression of the Jews.

MAY TELL OF ATEN HERESY

It is Also Counted On to Reveal, if Untouched by Robbers, Splendor of Pharaonic Mummies.

No mortuary chamber of a Pharaoh tomb has hitherto been found untampered with and no sarcophagus, the outer stone coffin, has hitherto been found unplundered by robbers, according to Dr. Ambrose Lansing¹, Egyptologist of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The antechamber, and its annex, of the tomb of Tut-ankh-Amen² were entered by the dynastic robbers, probably in the reign of Tut-ankh-Amen’s successor, Hor-em-eb³, but they evidently had to make a hasty retreat after stripping some of the gold from the funerary objects and looting some of the boxes of jewels and other small portable treasures, but the treasure left behind far exceeds in value and interest anything ever before found. The treasures in the inner chambers may be still greater and more important, according to Dr. Lansing, who hopes that these chambers escaped the looters entirely. If so, it is the only tomb of a Pharaoh known to have escaped.

If the inner tomb of Tut-ankh-Amen did escape, and it now seems that it did, it would be almost the only tomb of any great ruler or great personage of antiquity to have had such luck. Prehistoric tombs and early historic tombs in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas, almost without exception, have been plundered. Grave-robbing is one of the oldest and most universal crimes. It has the most ancient pedigree of all crimes, except murder, the primal malefuction, according to the Bible.

According to Dr. Lansing, it will be months and perhaps a year before public curiosity can be fully satisfied about the contents of the inner chambers. The jewels on the mummy may be the most complete and interesting specimens of the work of the Egyptian jewelers, who were great masters. Literary treasures also are likely to be found. Because of the high artistic achievement indicated in the other finds in the tomb, it is believed that the paintings in “The Book of Dead,”⁴ that con which is expected to be found, may be the finest of their kind. Papyri relating to the “Aten” heresy⁵ which Tut-ankh-Amen rejected may be discovered.

Hopes for Information on the Flood

Dr. Elliot Smith⁶, the noted British archaeologist, has expressed the hope that legends in the inner chamber may throw a new light on the origin of the narrative of the flood. The destruction of the world because of the wickedness of man, as told in Genesis, is also read in Babylonian records and is suggested in certain tomb inscriptions in angient Egypt, according to Dr. Smith, who believes the account originiated in Egypt.

Arthur Weigall⁷, former Inspector General of Antiquities to the Egyptian Government, and other have put forward the theory that Tut-ankh-Amen was the Pharaoh of the oppression, whose army was overwhelmed in attempting to pursue the Jews in their miraculous passage through the waters of the Red Sea.

Historians and archaeologists will have the keenest possible interest in the papyri that may be found in the tomb, hoping that something will be discovered to give the Egyptian version of their relations with the Jews. So far no reference has been found, in all the early records of Egypt, to the sojourn of the Jews in that country, to the seven years of famine and the seven years of plenty, to the seven plagues, or to the destruction of the army which Pharaoh sent to recall the Jews after permitting them to depart from Egypt.

One of the leading objects of searches for papryi in recent years has been to find corroboration from Egyptian sources for the stay in Egypt and the exodus⁸, but these events, which make so large a figure in Jewish history, are a blank in the Egyptian records which have been recovered so far. Egyptian history, tradition and literature were never consolidated and preserved, and have been pieced together only in modern times and from fragment. The Jews are believed to have been a comparatively small tribe at the time and Egypt a highly populous country, so that the Jewish contact with Egypt has been represented by some historians as a thing of slight consequence to the Egyptians, who would regard it as the deportation or withdrawal of a handful of aliens. The series of terrible plagues, described in the Old Testament are not touched upon in any Egyptian material so far recovered.

Connects Moses with Aten Heresy.

Mr. Wiegall’s theory is that Moses, who had risen in the Egyptian Government service, had succeeded in inaugurating the worship of Jehovah, so that the “Aten heresy” would in reality be the Jewish religion.

The belief that Tut-ankh-Amen was the Pharaoh of the persecution is based on the chronological grounds and on the belief that, since the “Aten” heresy was repudiated during his reign, Moses and his people, who were responsible for it, may well have had their troubles with the Egyptians at this time. Tut-ankh-Amen’s tomb is a short distance from the burial-place of Meneptah, who is generally believed to have been the persecutor of the Jews and the “Pharaoh of the Exodus.”

But it will be months, according to Dr. Lansing, before the curtain can be raised on these and other possibilities.

“I received a letter from one of the workers,” he said, “indicating that the tomb will probably be looked over and then cemented up until next season. Things will be examined in place, inventoried and photographed, but they cannot very well be taken out of the tomb this season. The heat becomes very severe in March, and it is impracticable to continue at work. The things must be studied where they are. Much mischief would be caused by any hasty attempt to transport them. It will be very difficult to remove the heavy sarcophagus. Everything is much safer in the place where it has been preserved for more than thirty-two centuries.

“No other Pharaoh, I believe, has ever been found untouched in the original sarcophagus. The robbers in all other cases smashed the stone lid and took the jewels and valuable things which were buried with the body. As this has invariably happened to the other Pharaohs, we do not know exactly what their funerary equipment was, but it probably consisted of a number of fine pieces of jewelry among other things.

“Many unsmashed sarcophagi have been found, but on being opened, it was discovered that the mummies had been transferred there after having been plundered in earlier sarcophagi. In such cases, the necropolitan authorities had rewrapped the mummies, and re-equipped the bodies, but with less splendor.

“If the mummy is found as originally buried, we might expect to find many valuable articles, such as collars of gold, probably ornamented with stones, gold bracelets and anklets and perhaps some kind of a crown. I don’t believe there would be anything like a breastplate, but there would probably be a pectoral, which is something like the modern lavalliere.

“Judging from the reports, these pieces might be set with stones, especially lapis lazuli, carnelian and turquoise, which are about the old precious stones. This was long before the use of pearls or diamonds as jewelry. There might be found some imitations of lapis lazuli and other stones in glass. Glass was highly esteemed at that early stage in the art of making it, but it was used only for imitations of the precious stones, and on the whole it is probably unlikely that jewels ornamented with glass will be found.

Mummy May Wear Mask.

“Whatever the jewels are, they will probably be found, not next to the body, but wrapped in among the folds of the cloth in which the mummy is wound. There will probably be no robes or articles of clothing, outside of the plain cloth wrapping. There might be a covering of tapestry or something of the kind in the sarcophagus, but that is doubtful. It is expected that there will be a mask on the face. This will probably be made of stucco placed on linen, formed like a human face and then glided.”

The theory of Professor Flinders Petrie⁹ is that the richness of the treasures in Tut-ankh-Amen’s tomb is due to the fact that he was the last of his line and had, therefore, no heir to whom his treasures could be passed, and as a result that most of his personal estate, in the way of jewelry and art, was buried with him. Professor Petrie believes that objects of this kind which he had inherited from generations of ancestors were probably buried with him. On this hypothesis the inner chamber might be exceptionally rich in heirlooms which would make a splendid addition to the treasury of art and archaeology already found in the outer chamber.

“But this is a moot question,” said Dr. Lansing. “The other Pharaohs were so badly plundered that we do not really know how much or little may have been originally buried with them. Several couched, chariot and other furniture have been found in other tomb.”

It is not expected that any more trussed fowl and such objects will be found in the inner chambers, which are supposed to be devoted mainly to magical things which were expected to speed the soul of the dead on its way to its eternal home. It is in [connection] with this that valuable literary remains are expected.

One of the trappings of a splendid funeral in ancient Egypt was the illuminated papyrus roll known as “The Book of the Dead.” This was a religious document in the form of a scroll which might approach 100 feet long, with religious writings, elaborate pictures of the hereafter, as some Dante of ancient Egypt had portrayed it. This was supposed to have a magical function, being a sort of religious Baedeker, outlining the pilgrimage which lay before the Pharaoh. The most interesting point expected in “The Book of the Dead” which is thought almost certain to be found with Tut-ankh-Amen is some reference to the Aten heresy.

This papyrus may indicate alterations in “The Book of the Dead” as a result of the change of religion made by Khu-n-aten. The prayers and magical formulae of “The Book of the Dead” are almost certain to have been changed during the Aten period, and it is possible that some change may be retained in the document buried with Tut-ankh-Amen. Whether changed or not, it is likely to be a fine and splendidly illuminated document.

Drawings Have Magic Purpose.

Some of the drawings of “The Book of the Dead” and their purpose are described as follows by E. Wallis Budge¹⁰ in his Egyptian history:

“The Theban and Saite Recensions of ‘The Book of the Dead’ are full of spells, accompanied by magical drawings. Thus the Chapter of the Ladder and the drawing of it would secure for the deceased the use of the famous ladder whereby Osiris had climbed up from earth into heaven. The Chapter of the Ferryboat and a picture of it would provide a boat for the deceased when he wished to sail across the Nile of the Other World. Each part of the spell possessed a magical name, which is given in the text of the spell, and when all the names of the parts were properly pronounced by the deceased the boat would sail to any place to which he wanted it to go. The Judgment scene, which represented to the initiated the deepest and most fundamental truths in the religion of Osiris, was, to the ordinary Egyptian, a magical picture drawn on funerary papyri with the view of making the gods declare those for whom it was drawn to be truth seekers. If drawings of Osiris, Ra, Isis and Nephthys, the four gods of the wind, were painted on a coffin, they would enable its occupant to enter each of the four quarters of heaven.”

An Egyptian version of the story of the “flood,” according to Dr. Elliot Smith, was in one case at least told of the wall of a tomb, to assist the soul of the inmate of the tomb.

Suggesting that the walls or contents of the tomb of Tut-ankh-Amen might throw further light on the origin of the Biblical narrative, Professor Smith declared:

“Inscribed on the walls of the tomb of Seti I, in the Theban necropolis-less than seventy years after the burial of Tut-ankh-Amen – is the remarkable story of the Destruction of Mankind. In spite of the fact that it was inscribed in this tomb as recently – in comparison with the Sumerian story – as 1800 B.C., the strange confusion of archaic reference which has made it so unintelligible to most modern scholars reveals the fact that its origin must be referred back to the fourth millennium. Although the destruction is not brought about by the flood, it is clear that the Egyptian and Mesopotamian stories have a common origin and a common motive. For the essential incident in the latter is not the flood, but the destruction of mankind which it brought to pass.

“If it be asked why this venerable story should be inscribed in the tomb of an Egyptian Pharaoh, the answer is that its aim was to secure for the dead king those boons the attainment of which was the central motive of the tale.”

What was done in the Babylonian legend by the flood was accomplished in the Egyptian variation, according to Dr. Smith, by the slaughter of all Egyptians by an ancient king. The legend indicated that the kings of old were executed when they began to show signs of age, because the belief prevailed that the prosperity of early Egypt waxed or waned with the physical condition of the king. The monarch of the legend began to show symptoms of age. His subjects began to murmur that it was time for the king to die. But the king hit on the plan of killing his subjects and renewing his youth by drinking their blood. He finally killed them all.

“But when the king had slaughtered them,” Dr. Smith [continued], “and had attained a renewal of his youth, he was overcome by the boredom of too prolonged an existence upon earth. So he mounted upon the back of a celestial cow and so reached heaven and attained immortality.”

Citations

The original source for the transcription came from The New York Times on February 17, 1924 through the TimesMachine.

“Arthur Wiegall.” Artefacts of Excavation. 2015. https://egyptartefacts.griffith.ox.ac.uk/people/arthur-weigall.

Benderitter, Thierry. “Akhenaten and the Religion of Aten.” Tombs of Ancient Egypt. https://www.osirisnet.net/docu/akhenaton/e_akhenaton_01.htm.

“Book of the Dead.” University College London. 2002. https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/literature/religious/bdfront.html.

Knohl, Israel. “Pinpointing the Exodus from Egypt.” Harvard Divinity Bulletin. 2018. https://bulletin.hds.harvard.edu/pinpointing-the-exodus-from-egypt/.

Mellor, Lise. “Smith, Sir Grafton Elliot.” Faculty of Medicine Online Museum and Archive RSS. 2008. https://www.sydney.edu.au/medicine/museum/mwmuseum/index.php/Smith,_Sir_Grafton_Elliot.

“Sir Ernest A T Wallis Budge.” Collections Online | British Museum. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG62010.

“The Archaeological Record: Flinders Petrie in Egypt.” 2002. https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/archaeology/petriedigsindex.html.

Sarah Grider

Sarah Grider is a student of the 2021 Spring Discovering Digital History class at the Ramapo College of New Jersey. She is currently studying History and Museum & Exhibition Studies. She is an editorial assistant for the Jane Addams Papers Project.

Charlie Chaplin was a popular actor, comedian and filmmaker during the 20th century. His comedic genius was recognized worldwide as by the 1920s Chaplin had become an incredible success both in the United States and abroad. Chaplin’s films often commented on the insanity of every day life and he brought attention to the various class struggles many faced during the decade. Today, Chaplin is considered one of the most influential figures in the film industry.

Early Life

Charles Spencer Chaplin was born in London, England, on April 16th, 1889. Both of Chaplin’s parents were prominent stage actors in the U.K, introducing Chaplin to stage art at the young age of five. During his childhood Chaplin and his brother Sydney faced the loss of their mother and father, forcing the two kids into entering an orphanage in London. Chaplin had always had a difficult relationship with his father and therefore was drawn to his mother’s caring and composed manner. Yet when his mother fell ill after his fathers death, Chaplin was plagued with guilt and feelings of isolation. 

It is not surprising that Chaplin’s troubled childhood resulted in an increased desire to express himself on stage. Chaplin has been cited describing comedy as an art which “prevents one from being overwhelmed and driven to the point of insanity by the seriousness of life.” 

Due to his exposure to the stage and inheriting his parents admiration for performance art, Chaplin joined a youth company in England called the Eight Lancashire Lads where he performed as a tap dancer. In 1908 Chaplin joined the Fred Karno Repertoire Company which prompted his move to the United States in 1910. 

Coming to America

Chaplin toured with the Karno Company for a few years before eventually receiving a motion picture contract in November of 1913 where he would agree to appear in Canadian-American director Mack Sennett’s Keystone comedy films. In the United States Chaplin gained massive popularity through his Keystone performances and it was while creating films for Sennett that Chaplin developed his iconic style and character the Tramp, which would propel him to much greater success in the coming years. 

The character of The Little Tramp that was created through his work in the U.S. was a man who dressed in a haggard suit, carrying a cane and often wearing a top hat. The Tramp was clumsy and awkward in these situations, making him endearing and relatable. Chaplin is considered an expert at creating comedy in difficult or brief situations. Especially during a period of silent film, Chaplin relied on physical comedy and facial expressions to find the humor within scenes. 

After a year at Keystone Chaplin left the company to pursue a contract with Essanay Film Manufacturing in 1915 where he would receive an increase in pay of around $900, around $20,000 by 2021 standards. However, by 1916 Chaplin had signed to Mutual Film Corporation for an even greater salary. Chaplin had made a name for himself in the American film industry as one of the most sought after comedic actors of the beginning of the 20th century.

Upon completion of his contract with Mutual Films, Chaplin had begun ruminating on the idea of starting his own production company. The United States involvement in World War I studented his project slightly, as in 1918 entered into an agreement with First National Exhibitors’ Circuit. The organization encouraged Chaplin to travel around the U.S. to sell war bonds and generate public support for the war after his film production had completed. Chaplin’s emergence and understanding of American society and its population would allow him to create films in the following decade that would capture both the industrial landscape of the country and the experiences of working class immigrants. 

Independence in Film

Chaplin was eager to begin construction of his new studio located in Hollywood, California. After over two decades working in the film industry he wished to gain the freedom to create his own projects. In 1919 Chaplin, along with other prominent figures in the industry such as Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks and D.W. Griffith created the United Artists Cooperation. The majority of Chaplin’s films throughout the 1920s would be made through United Artists.

Notable Works of the 1920s

Chaplin’s first prominent work of the decade was his film The Kid, which was released in 1921. The silent film showcased his popular character the Tramp as a man who rescues a baby that had been abandoned by an unwed mother and raises him for a number of years. The film had its premiere at New York City’s Carnegie Hall and received immense support from critics who praised Chaplin for his direction and comedic capabilities. The film itself was one of the first in his career where Chaplin began to address the issue of poverty and class dynamics in society. The film highlights the realities unmarried women who must bear children alone face, along with questions about what it means to “properly” raise a child within a certain standard of living. 

In 1923 Chaplin released A Woman in Paris, a film which signaled a shift in Chaplin’s previous endeavors. The film itself was a romantic drama, and Chaplin himself played a very small role amidst the two main actors. A Woman in Paris showcased a more serious side of Chaplin and proved his abilities as a capable filmmaker. 

Despite all his notable work during the 1920s, Chaplin’s 1925 film The Gold Rush, offered a nuanced perspective on Western expansion and American poverty during a period of advertised affluence. Although many of Chaplin’s films offer some social commentary, The Gold Rush sees Chaplin’s Tramp character seeking gold in the wild American plains, resorting to poverty and starvation as a result of his idealized quest for wealth. A famous scene from the film depicts Chaplin eating his own rubber shoe for a meal as a comedic take on the realities of food insecurity in the United States. 

The work released by Chaplin during the 1920s was often reflective of many of the social and economic issues that were present amongst lower and middle class Americans. While Chaplin’s films were a manner with which the public could escape reality and be entertained, the messages explored through his character the Tramp highlighted poverty, injustice and urban decay. 

In 1928 Chaplin’s The Circus was released after months of turbulent filming conditions. The film was rated highly by critics and even earned Chaplin his first Academy Award. The actors worked alongside live animals, performed their own stunts aimed to create the environment of a circus on set. Along with acting in the film, Chaplin worked behind the scenes to produce the music score for the film as song choice was especially important in silent movies during this time. Chaplin chose music popular during the 1920s to play against his work in the hopes that it would allow the audience to better understand the characters emotions and actions. 

Significance During The 1920s

Charlie Chaplin was an integral figure during the 1920s through his films, stage presence, impact on the film industry and commentary on various social issues. During the 1920s Chaplin started his own production company and released some of his most memorable works such as The Kid, A Woman in Paris, The Gold Rush and The Circus. Although the 1920s is often remembered as an affluent time in American history, Chaplin’s films are a reminder of the kinds of conditions working class and immigrant families faced. Audiences were able to be entertained in theaters, while also being exposed to poverty out West or the difficult life of a child on the streets. 

Chaplin set a new standard in the 1920s for what comedy and film were capable of. His films challenged conventional Hollywood narratives and introduced a new era of filmmaking.

Timeline of Chaplin’s Life Throughout The 1920s

https://www.sutori.com/story/charlie-chaplin–NBwXvUjfBqEzFqTcDgZRJ5S5/embed

Citations:

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/charlie-chaplin-born

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charlie-Chaplin

https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Kid-film-1921

https://www.charliechaplin.com/en/articles/21-Overview-of-His-Life

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pickford-charlie-chaplin-1889-1977/

Korte, Barbara. “New World Poor through an Old World Lens: Charlie Chaplin’s Engagement with Poverty.” Amerikastudien / American Studies 55, no. 1 (2010): 123-41.https://www.jstor.org/stable/41158484.

Kuriyama, Constance Brown. “Chaplin’s Impure Comedy: The Art of Survival.” Film Quarterly 45, no. 3 (1992): 26-38.https://www.jstor.org/stable/1213221.

Vance, Jeffrey. “”The Circus”: A Chaplin Masterpiece.” Film History 8, no. 2 (1996): 186-208. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3815334.

Lauren S

Senior History and American Studies student at Ramapo College of New Jersey enrolled in Discovering Digital History course taught by Dr. Hajo during Spring 2021.

King Tutankhamun

King Tutankhamun’s tomb was exhumed on February 16, 1923, by archaeologist Howard Carter along with a group of historians and important figures in the world at the time. The discovery of this tomb shocked the world as it opened up a time portal to the past treasures of Ancient Egypt. Upon entering the tomb, they were greeted with golden figures and deep blues of lapis lazuli. Decorative inscriptions and insignia left to protect Tutankhamun in his journey to the afterlife were captivating to those who viewed it and left society engrossed in the lifestyle of royalty in Ancient Egypt. King Tut was immortalized in a scene of wealth and gold, and was celebritized thousands of years later for exactly that scene.

When photographs of the findings started to become published to the public, the craze of Egyptian treasures and mystery grew. While there was an overall interest in Ancient Egypt for years before the discovery of the tomb, it reached new highs and left a heavier influence of fashion, makeup, furniture, and fabrics; adding to the new-founded art deco aesthetic. American society sought to replicate the beauty of Egyptian culture within their own lives, and so the United States saw a surge in King Tut-related advertisements, music, books, and movies. He was sensationalized by the media and saw the relics in his tombs as alluring artwork.

King Tutankhamun’s Influence on Society

King Tutankhamun’s rise in popularity was fueled by the American desire to have similar Egyptian treasures of their own. Some parallels can be drawn between the two eras of history; both have been remembered for their lavish lifestyles, unique fashion, and technological advances. As seen in the image above, Egyptian influence on fashion was a key part in the fashion of the 1920s. Short shift dresses often worn by women and men in Ancient Egypt can be seen as similar to the newer, shorter dresses donned by a younger society of women wanting to break free from the modest norm. Statement jewelry of gold and precious jewels were a staple in both eras of history and signified wealth and social status.

Aside from societal revolution, the public exhumation of the tomb brought about a new surge of interest in archaeology and the history found through it. It amazed the public that such an old civilization could have such beautiful and long-lasting treasures. The public became obsessed with these findings, which further fueled the craze for Egyptian history.

The image taken from a New York Times article published on February 16, 1923 further proves the amazement that the public had for King Tutankhamun. Language such as, “dazzled,” “undreamed of splendors,” and “king in nest of shrines,” shows how this discovery took the world by storm. It was truly made out to be luxurious turn of events for historians and the public. The article continues to fawn over the tremendous discoveries inside of the Pharaoh’s final resting place; vivid vocabulary describes the picture of the discovery to be other-worldly and beyond beautiful. It was no wonder the world became so infatuated with King Tutankhamun, as the media was glamorizing the artifacts he was buried with. King Tut was left with his physical wealth at his side, something humans have long been obsessed with; ways to showcase and immortalize their wealth. Tut-mania in the 1920s continued this trend, specifically with the Egyptians in mind, by publishing media and fashion based around it.

Relation to the 1920s

Tut-mania and its influence on the decade of the 1920s proves to be very prominent as time goes on. Fashion trends of this time period were heavily influenced by the findings in King Tutankhamun’s tomb as well as other groundbreaking discoveries in Egyptology. Dresses of the 1920s were decorated in beadwork and embroidery akin to Egyptian art and motifs. Makeup looks of the decade had an emphasis on black kohl eyeliner around the eyes, which was very similar to the style the Egyptians had used thousands of years ago. Society in the United States, especially, drew a lot of inspiration from the findings in King Tutankhamun’s tomb. As mentioned previously, it held significant contribution to the Art Deco style that was frequently used in this time period and leading up into the 1930s. Use of color in furniture in art show a very strong resemblance to the colors often used in Ancient Egyptian art.

Aside from fashion and art, King Tutankhamun served as a cultural icon during the 1920s as the obsession and craze for him grew. His likeness and name were used all throughout media; entire theaters were dedicated to the Egyptian architecture and design. Movies and plays were centered around the Pharaoh, as well as music and lyrics telling his story to the modern world. The 1920s was a rich source of Egyptian revival media that has impacted the way society views the region as a whole. The infatuation with Egyptian culture has led many to glorify the era instead of viewing it as a place full of historical significance.

The impact that Tut-mania had on society in the 1920s was responsible for a good amount of the history we remember today. From an outside perspective, it almost seems as if the fashion and art of the 1920s was a callback to the enchanting lifestyles of Egyptian royalty, such as King Tutankhamun. As written earlier, the fashion of short shift dresses and elaborate jewelry to decorate the body seems to be very akin to the fashion and jewelry discovered in King Tutankhamun’s tomb. It is arguable that Tut-mania helped to shape the 1920s into the lavish and memorable decade it is remembered as today.

Citations

Danton, William. “Tutmania: An Exploration of Western Portrayals of King Tutankhamun and Orientalism in Egypt.” University of Puget Sound. May 15, 2019. https://soundideas.pugetsound.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1035&context=history_theses

“Tut-Ankh-Amen’s Inner Tomb is Opened”, The New York Times, February 16, 1923 

Sarah Grider

Sarah Grider is a student of the 2021 Spring Discovering Digital History class at the Ramapo College of New Jersey. She is currently studying History and Museum & Exhibition Studies. She is an editorial assistant for the Jane Addams Papers Project.