Specifically regarding the Snyder Act, which was supposed to grant citizenship and the right to vote to all Native Americans, ended up furthering the divide in society. The federal government left voting rights up to the states to decide, which meant that many refused to allow suffrage to Native Americans regardless of their citizenship. This was an act I unaware of, especially the subsequent objection that followed this act. Native American individuals formed organizations and groups to gather and fight for the right to vote, but also to find access to education, legal advice, and many other things that they were left in the dark from through the government.

I also learned that the women’s suffrage movement was not all-inclusive, and was not an easy fight. While I knew in the past that the right to vote had been many decades in the making, it took the states a while to adopt the policy. This pushback was seen in both Native American rights and women’s rights, which I had not made the connection until this semester. There were many minor individuals who played a groundbreaking role in history, like Febb Ensminger Burn. Her actions to her son completely changed the course of history, as it was her son’s decision to vote in favor of women’s suffrage that not only won the state vote, but reached the amount of states needed to ratify the amendment.

The 1920s was a period of exciting discovery, like the exhumation of King Tut-ankh-Amun’s tomb. It is easy to think that people in the past were not aware of different cultures and its history, but the mania that erupted from the obsession with King Tut-ankh-Amun proves otherwise. America saw such an increase in music, theater, fashion, and even Egyptian inspired home decor and furniture. I did not realize the impact that Ancient Egyptian history had on the 1920s, especially with eye makeup and bright, golden clothes.

After rethinking my initial opinion of the 1920s, I realize that I was not fully educated on exactly what occurred in the decade. My thoughts were based off of movies and television shows inspired by the “roaring” 1920s. While the partying and exciting events still occurred during this time, there is so much more depth and history surrounding the 1920s that goes unheard and is overshadowed by the romantic glamor. I would urge anyone to look beyond the lavishness that was the 1920s and find the true history of it; literature, archaeological digs, new finds in medicine, fights for civil rights, and so much more.

Sarah Grider

Sarah Grider is a student of the 2021 Spring Discovering Digital History class at the Ramapo College of New Jersey. She is currently studying History and Museum & Exhibition Studies. She is an editorial assistant for the Jane Addams Papers Project.

Experts Think It May Give a Version of the Flood and of the Oppression of the Jews.

MAY TELL OF ATEN HERESY

It is Also Counted On to Reveal, if Untouched by Robbers, Splendor of Pharaonic Mummies.

No mortuary chamber of a Pharaoh tomb has hitherto been found untampered with and no sarcophagus, the outer stone coffin, has hitherto been found unplundered by robbers, according to Dr. Ambrose Lansing¹, Egyptologist of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The antechamber, and its annex, of the tomb of Tut-ankh-Amen² were entered by the dynastic robbers, probably in the reign of Tut-ankh-Amen’s successor, Hor-em-eb³, but they evidently had to make a hasty retreat after stripping some of the gold from the funerary objects and looting some of the boxes of jewels and other small portable treasures, but the treasure left behind far exceeds in value and interest anything ever before found. The treasures in the inner chambers may be still greater and more important, according to Dr. Lansing, who hopes that these chambers escaped the looters entirely. If so, it is the only tomb of a Pharaoh known to have escaped.

If the inner tomb of Tut-ankh-Amen did escape, and it now seems that it did, it would be almost the only tomb of any great ruler or great personage of antiquity to have had such luck. Prehistoric tombs and early historic tombs in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas, almost without exception, have been plundered. Grave-robbing is one of the oldest and most universal crimes. It has the most ancient pedigree of all crimes, except murder, the primal malefuction, according to the Bible.

According to Dr. Lansing, it will be months and perhaps a year before public curiosity can be fully satisfied about the contents of the inner chambers. The jewels on the mummy may be the most complete and interesting specimens of the work of the Egyptian jewelers, who were great masters. Literary treasures also are likely to be found. Because of the high artistic achievement indicated in the other finds in the tomb, it is believed that the paintings in “The Book of Dead,”⁴ that con which is expected to be found, may be the finest of their kind. Papyri relating to the “Aten” heresy⁵ which Tut-ankh-Amen rejected may be discovered.

Hopes for Information on the Flood

Dr. Elliot Smith⁶, the noted British archaeologist, has expressed the hope that legends in the inner chamber may throw a new light on the origin of the narrative of the flood. The destruction of the world because of the wickedness of man, as told in Genesis, is also read in Babylonian records and is suggested in certain tomb inscriptions in angient Egypt, according to Dr. Smith, who believes the account originiated in Egypt.

Arthur Weigall⁷, former Inspector General of Antiquities to the Egyptian Government, and other have put forward the theory that Tut-ankh-Amen was the Pharaoh of the oppression, whose army was overwhelmed in attempting to pursue the Jews in their miraculous passage through the waters of the Red Sea.

Historians and archaeologists will have the keenest possible interest in the papyri that may be found in the tomb, hoping that something will be discovered to give the Egyptian version of their relations with the Jews. So far no reference has been found, in all the early records of Egypt, to the sojourn of the Jews in that country, to the seven years of famine and the seven years of plenty, to the seven plagues, or to the destruction of the army which Pharaoh sent to recall the Jews after permitting them to depart from Egypt.

One of the leading objects of searches for papryi in recent years has been to find corroboration from Egyptian sources for the stay in Egypt and the exodus⁸, but these events, which make so large a figure in Jewish history, are a blank in the Egyptian records which have been recovered so far. Egyptian history, tradition and literature were never consolidated and preserved, and have been pieced together only in modern times and from fragment. The Jews are believed to have been a comparatively small tribe at the time and Egypt a highly populous country, so that the Jewish contact with Egypt has been represented by some historians as a thing of slight consequence to the Egyptians, who would regard it as the deportation or withdrawal of a handful of aliens. The series of terrible plagues, described in the Old Testament are not touched upon in any Egyptian material so far recovered.

Connects Moses with Aten Heresy.

Mr. Wiegall’s theory is that Moses, who had risen in the Egyptian Government service, had succeeded in inaugurating the worship of Jehovah, so that the “Aten heresy” would in reality be the Jewish religion.

The belief that Tut-ankh-Amen was the Pharaoh of the persecution is based on the chronological grounds and on the belief that, since the “Aten” heresy was repudiated during his reign, Moses and his people, who were responsible for it, may well have had their troubles with the Egyptians at this time. Tut-ankh-Amen’s tomb is a short distance from the burial-place of Meneptah, who is generally believed to have been the persecutor of the Jews and the “Pharaoh of the Exodus.”

But it will be months, according to Dr. Lansing, before the curtain can be raised on these and other possibilities.

“I received a letter from one of the workers,” he said, “indicating that the tomb will probably be looked over and then cemented up until next season. Things will be examined in place, inventoried and photographed, but they cannot very well be taken out of the tomb this season. The heat becomes very severe in March, and it is impracticable to continue at work. The things must be studied where they are. Much mischief would be caused by any hasty attempt to transport them. It will be very difficult to remove the heavy sarcophagus. Everything is much safer in the place where it has been preserved for more than thirty-two centuries.

“No other Pharaoh, I believe, has ever been found untouched in the original sarcophagus. The robbers in all other cases smashed the stone lid and took the jewels and valuable things which were buried with the body. As this has invariably happened to the other Pharaohs, we do not know exactly what their funerary equipment was, but it probably consisted of a number of fine pieces of jewelry among other things.

“Many unsmashed sarcophagi have been found, but on being opened, it was discovered that the mummies had been transferred there after having been plundered in earlier sarcophagi. In such cases, the necropolitan authorities had rewrapped the mummies, and re-equipped the bodies, but with less splendor.

“If the mummy is found as originally buried, we might expect to find many valuable articles, such as collars of gold, probably ornamented with stones, gold bracelets and anklets and perhaps some kind of a crown. I don’t believe there would be anything like a breastplate, but there would probably be a pectoral, which is something like the modern lavalliere.

“Judging from the reports, these pieces might be set with stones, especially lapis lazuli, carnelian and turquoise, which are about the old precious stones. This was long before the use of pearls or diamonds as jewelry. There might be found some imitations of lapis lazuli and other stones in glass. Glass was highly esteemed at that early stage in the art of making it, but it was used only for imitations of the precious stones, and on the whole it is probably unlikely that jewels ornamented with glass will be found.

Mummy May Wear Mask.

“Whatever the jewels are, they will probably be found, not next to the body, but wrapped in among the folds of the cloth in which the mummy is wound. There will probably be no robes or articles of clothing, outside of the plain cloth wrapping. There might be a covering of tapestry or something of the kind in the sarcophagus, but that is doubtful. It is expected that there will be a mask on the face. This will probably be made of stucco placed on linen, formed like a human face and then glided.”

The theory of Professor Flinders Petrie⁹ is that the richness of the treasures in Tut-ankh-Amen’s tomb is due to the fact that he was the last of his line and had, therefore, no heir to whom his treasures could be passed, and as a result that most of his personal estate, in the way of jewelry and art, was buried with him. Professor Petrie believes that objects of this kind which he had inherited from generations of ancestors were probably buried with him. On this hypothesis the inner chamber might be exceptionally rich in heirlooms which would make a splendid addition to the treasury of art and archaeology already found in the outer chamber.

“But this is a moot question,” said Dr. Lansing. “The other Pharaohs were so badly plundered that we do not really know how much or little may have been originally buried with them. Several couched, chariot and other furniture have been found in other tomb.”

It is not expected that any more trussed fowl and such objects will be found in the inner chambers, which are supposed to be devoted mainly to magical things which were expected to speed the soul of the dead on its way to its eternal home. It is in [connection] with this that valuable literary remains are expected.

One of the trappings of a splendid funeral in ancient Egypt was the illuminated papyrus roll known as “The Book of the Dead.” This was a religious document in the form of a scroll which might approach 100 feet long, with religious writings, elaborate pictures of the hereafter, as some Dante of ancient Egypt had portrayed it. This was supposed to have a magical function, being a sort of religious Baedeker, outlining the pilgrimage which lay before the Pharaoh. The most interesting point expected in “The Book of the Dead” which is thought almost certain to be found with Tut-ankh-Amen is some reference to the Aten heresy.

This papyrus may indicate alterations in “The Book of the Dead” as a result of the change of religion made by Khu-n-aten. The prayers and magical formulae of “The Book of the Dead” are almost certain to have been changed during the Aten period, and it is possible that some change may be retained in the document buried with Tut-ankh-Amen. Whether changed or not, it is likely to be a fine and splendidly illuminated document.

Drawings Have Magic Purpose.

Some of the drawings of “The Book of the Dead” and their purpose are described as follows by E. Wallis Budge¹⁰ in his Egyptian history:

“The Theban and Saite Recensions of ‘The Book of the Dead’ are full of spells, accompanied by magical drawings. Thus the Chapter of the Ladder and the drawing of it would secure for the deceased the use of the famous ladder whereby Osiris had climbed up from earth into heaven. The Chapter of the Ferryboat and a picture of it would provide a boat for the deceased when he wished to sail across the Nile of the Other World. Each part of the spell possessed a magical name, which is given in the text of the spell, and when all the names of the parts were properly pronounced by the deceased the boat would sail to any place to which he wanted it to go. The Judgment scene, which represented to the initiated the deepest and most fundamental truths in the religion of Osiris, was, to the ordinary Egyptian, a magical picture drawn on funerary papyri with the view of making the gods declare those for whom it was drawn to be truth seekers. If drawings of Osiris, Ra, Isis and Nephthys, the four gods of the wind, were painted on a coffin, they would enable its occupant to enter each of the four quarters of heaven.”

An Egyptian version of the story of the “flood,” according to Dr. Elliot Smith, was in one case at least told of the wall of a tomb, to assist the soul of the inmate of the tomb.

Suggesting that the walls or contents of the tomb of Tut-ankh-Amen might throw further light on the origin of the Biblical narrative, Professor Smith declared:

“Inscribed on the walls of the tomb of Seti I, in the Theban necropolis-less than seventy years after the burial of Tut-ankh-Amen – is the remarkable story of the Destruction of Mankind. In spite of the fact that it was inscribed in this tomb as recently – in comparison with the Sumerian story – as 1800 B.C., the strange confusion of archaic reference which has made it so unintelligible to most modern scholars reveals the fact that its origin must be referred back to the fourth millennium. Although the destruction is not brought about by the flood, it is clear that the Egyptian and Mesopotamian stories have a common origin and a common motive. For the essential incident in the latter is not the flood, but the destruction of mankind which it brought to pass.

“If it be asked why this venerable story should be inscribed in the tomb of an Egyptian Pharaoh, the answer is that its aim was to secure for the dead king those boons the attainment of which was the central motive of the tale.”

What was done in the Babylonian legend by the flood was accomplished in the Egyptian variation, according to Dr. Smith, by the slaughter of all Egyptians by an ancient king. The legend indicated that the kings of old were executed when they began to show signs of age, because the belief prevailed that the prosperity of early Egypt waxed or waned with the physical condition of the king. The monarch of the legend began to show symptoms of age. His subjects began to murmur that it was time for the king to die. But the king hit on the plan of killing his subjects and renewing his youth by drinking their blood. He finally killed them all.

“But when the king had slaughtered them,” Dr. Smith [continued], “and had attained a renewal of his youth, he was overcome by the boredom of too prolonged an existence upon earth. So he mounted upon the back of a celestial cow and so reached heaven and attained immortality.”

Citations

The original source for the transcription came from The New York Times on February 17, 1924 through the TimesMachine.

“Arthur Wiegall.” Artefacts of Excavation. 2015. https://egyptartefacts.griffith.ox.ac.uk/people/arthur-weigall.

Benderitter, Thierry. “Akhenaten and the Religion of Aten.” Tombs of Ancient Egypt. https://www.osirisnet.net/docu/akhenaton/e_akhenaton_01.htm.

“Book of the Dead.” University College London. 2002. https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/literature/religious/bdfront.html.

Knohl, Israel. “Pinpointing the Exodus from Egypt.” Harvard Divinity Bulletin. 2018. https://bulletin.hds.harvard.edu/pinpointing-the-exodus-from-egypt/.

Mellor, Lise. “Smith, Sir Grafton Elliot.” Faculty of Medicine Online Museum and Archive RSS. 2008. https://www.sydney.edu.au/medicine/museum/mwmuseum/index.php/Smith,_Sir_Grafton_Elliot.

“Sir Ernest A T Wallis Budge.” Collections Online | British Museum. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG62010.

“The Archaeological Record: Flinders Petrie in Egypt.” 2002. https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/archaeology/petriedigsindex.html.

Sarah Grider

Sarah Grider is a student of the 2021 Spring Discovering Digital History class at the Ramapo College of New Jersey. She is currently studying History and Museum & Exhibition Studies. She is an editorial assistant for the Jane Addams Papers Project.

A professor of history at the Cleveland State University, David J. Goldberg has spent much of his career in the field of history publishing books on the decade of the 1920s. In addition to “Rethinking the 1920s: Historians and Changing Perspectives,” Goldberg published “Discontented America – The United States in the 1920s” through the Johns Hopkins University Press in 1999. The courses that he teaches at Cleveland State University reflect his deep interest in the 1920s as well as having a focus in the history of immigration, which played an essential role in forming America in the 1920s.

A Summary of “Rethinking the 1920s: Historians and Changing Perspectives”

Goldberg begins his piece by emphasizing the importance of the 1920s, especially to historians, and how the two presidencies throughout the decade had a significant role in shaping it to be what it was. Politics throughout the decade put stress on either party, specifically in regards to the outcome of the Treaty of Versailles that became effective in January of 1920. Goldberg also explains the controversy over prohibition and the temperance movement and lists several books with information on this subject. He also discusses other social and racial issues that occurred during this time, such as the controversy of the Scopes trial and discussing creationism in public schools as well as the rise of the Ku Klux Klan as a result of the shift in social norms. People were resistant to social change and threatened by its idea, which led to violent and hateful groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. Goldberg lists some sources that discuss the rise of the Klan as well as women’s role in it. Enforcement on immigration to the United States was very much persuaded by these racist ideals. Domestic migration, however, was also a considerable marking of the 1920s; many Black people were escaping the South and making their way into the North which led to revolutions revolving around Black culture. Goldberg writes about the importance of the Harlem Renaissance and gives an anthology of all the works published during this time. He also notes the racial disparity in the South as many Black people remained there instead of moving North.

Goldberg also mentions how the role and the expectations of women completely shifted during this time as there was a heavier emphasis on fashion and maintaining beauty standards. Aside from vanity, women also demanded more rights and thus began the birth control movement; subjects such as this no longer remained taboo. Women secured a place in Hollywood and many famous actresses became synonymous with glamor and wealth. Finally, Goldberg notes how American novels and books were key pieces in understanding the decade, specifically F. Scott Fitzgerald’s, The Great Gatsby. Goldberg’s monograph is an extensive source of readings and books that educate readers on the decade that was the 1920s.

Goldberg’s writing covers a large scope of the 1920s and uses multiple sources from different years to create a comprehensive historiography of the 1920s. He gathers information from several different historians and authors to create his writing and form his opinions on the events that emphasized the 1920s. He did not stick to one certain decade or style of writing, nor did he narrow his views down to one or two subjects. He covers many defining aspects of the 1920s and backs it up with other research and sources.

Sarah Grider

Sarah Grider is a student of the 2021 Spring Discovering Digital History class at the Ramapo College of New Jersey. She is currently studying History and Museum & Exhibition Studies. She is an editorial assistant for the Jane Addams Papers Project.

The website, The 1920s in History, is categorized into several sections of history relating to the 1920s that are accessible to the user. Each category has a in-depth history written on the webpage along with hyperlinks within the text that lead the user to related information that was mentioned in the initial text. The homepage describes the site as a way to learn of the tremendous progress made within the 1920s as well as what it was like to live during the decade; it is quoted as “a historical snapshot of life in the 1920s.”

Creator

The creator of this site can be found under the “About Us” tab, which leads to a page with information about Robert Scott, who is listed as the sole contributor to the website. His interest in this decade is said to be responsible in the making of this website; he initially wanted to share his personal collection of research he gathered throughout the years.

On the “About Us” tab, there is also a link that leads the user to a site map, which appears to be a master list of all the hyperlinked sites and tabs.

Search Methods

From a surface level perspective, the website does not seem to be incredibly hard to navigate or search. The categorized tabs on the left margin of the website offer a quick way to visit themed posts on portions of history. The site lacks a search bar, which makes it difficult for a user to find specific terms or words within the articles posted. If someone were interested in searching a specific term, they would have to go through the tabs instead of being able to enter the term into a search bar. This makes searching more difficult as the user does not have a way to prioritize terms and searches.

That being said, the categorized tabs paired with the hyperlinked pages within the articles do add to the search experience. It is similar to how Wikipedia has set up their website; organized, specialized pages with highlighted words that lead the user to another page for additional research and understanding.

Trustworthiness

As with any site, the trustworthiness of this site is not exactly perfect. It does not appear to be peer-reviewed or fact-checked; the creator himself stated it is his personal collection uploaded to the site along with contextual information.

At the end of each post, Scott does include a bibliography-eqsue portion dedicated to sources, though it does not appear to be related to the information within the text. They are links that lead the user to primary sources but also other posts from the website, which complicates the process of finding Scott’s sources for the information he puts on his site.

Usefulness

The website does seem to be very useful in discovering information about the 1920s, but the lack of fact-checking and evidence makes it hard to determine the accuracy of what is presented to the user. Some links and pictures lead the user to commercial sites such as Amazon, which also muddles the research process. There does not seem to be any other contributors to the site, nor does there seem to be verified primary sources. If the user’s intention is to feed a curiosity on the 1920s, then this site may be useful to them in discovering new information. However, if the intention is to use this site as a resourced for academic information, further research would need to be done in order to verify the text written on the site which renders the site to not be useful to the user.

Sarah Grider

Sarah Grider is a student of the 2021 Spring Discovering Digital History class at the Ramapo College of New Jersey. She is currently studying History and Museum & Exhibition Studies. She is an editorial assistant for the Jane Addams Papers Project.

Phoebe Ensminger Burn was born in the quiet community of Mount Verd, Tennessee on November 23, 1873, and was more often well-known by her nickname of “Febb.” She was married at age 22 to James Lafayette Burn but was widowed in 1916 when James passed. In 1895, she gave birth to Harry Thomas Burn, who would eventually go on to serve on the Tennesse General Assembly where both he and his mother made history in the ratification of the 19th amendment in August of 1920.

Febb was an educated woman who graduated from, what is currently, Tennessee Wesleyan University in 1894. It was not commonplace for women to attend and graduate higher education, especially in southern states like Tennessee. She even went on to hold a career as a teacher in Niota, Tennessee. She owned a farm, along with her husband, and worked alongside many men who did not have the same education as Febb, but could vote in political elections. Harry T. Burn even noted this disparity and how it affected his vote in favor of the ratification of the 19th amendment.

Harry T. Burn received a letter from Febb which ultimately changed the fate of the ratification of the 19th amendment. Together, they both made history and Febb has been eternalized as a influential mother who ended up changing the history of the United States.

The Ratification of the 19th Amendment

The 1920s was a decade where advocates for women’s rights made tremendous strides in the United States government. For years before the ratification of the 19th amendment, women all over the United States had rallied and protested for equality and the right to vote; prominent women like Carrie Chapman Catt, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony all helped to push women towards a more equal country. It took decades for their efforts to reach federal hands, and even then, their fate was not yet guaranteed. In the state of Tennessee, the assembly was one of the remaining states to hold a meeting to vote on the 19th amendment; at this point in time thirty-eight states had already voted on ratifying the amendment while eight had voted against it. For the ratification to be legitimized, one more state needed to vote in favor of it.

Initially, Burn entered the meeting with a significant amount of pressure on him to vote against the ratification; he was up for re-election and needed votes, especially because the majority of the citizens staunchly opposed the ratification. If he had voted in agreement to ratify the 19th amendment, there was the possibility that he would lose the support of the members of his state so he donned a red rose on his lapel to symbolize his anti-suffrage position. Febb, his mother, knew the pain of the neglect of women’s rights and wanted to urge her son to vote for women’s suffrage and penned a heartfelt letter expressing how she felt.

Dear Son:

Hurrah and vote suffrage!…Don’t forget to be a good boy and help Mrs. Catt put the “rat” in ratification. Your Mother.

Excerpt from Febb’s letter to Harry T. Burn

That day, not only did Burn don a red rose on his lapel, he also entered the meeting with his mother’s note in his coat pocket; a physical reminder of the importance of passing the ratification of the 19th amendment. The council was tied 48:48 and Burn was the last to make the final decision; he was faced with standing for what he believed in or appealing to voters. Ultimately, he voted in favor of the ratification of the 19th amendment, abiding by his mother’s advice. Not only did his vote change the outcome of Tennesse, but it was his vote that pushed the ratification throughout the entire country, as now enough states had voted in favor of it. Without Febb’s words weighing on him throughout the meeting, there is the very real chance that Burn could have succumbed to the political pressure and voted against the bill.

Significance

One of the main events that identify the 1920s as the memorable decade it was is the fact that women gained the right to vote, which carried a huge weight along with it. It was a breakthrough for women all across the United States; they were viewed as politically active citizens, their voice mattered now! It sparked a huge movement of freedom throughout the decade; women wore shorter skirts, dated, went out to parties, and many other things that were once taboo for them. What would the 1920s have been like if women did not gain this monumental advancement? Arguably the most defining feature of the 1920s is the stark contrast in the way women viewed themselves in society; they could go out and enjoy a night just like their male counterparts, they could dress in the clothes they felt most comfortable in, and they were no longer bound to be silent in elections.

This article chooses to focus specifically on Febb as her actions directly impacted the ratification of the 19th amendment; a mother felt so strongly about women’s suffrage that she wrote her son on the morning of the council meeting in a passionate attempt to sway his vote. There is no way Febb could have known the severity of her actions; for her son to be the tie-breaking vote seems to be almost destined, in a way. However, she must have known the importance for Tennessee to vote in favor of ratification as the United States government needed one more state to be able to put the bill in motion. If Tennessee had rejected the ratification, it would have delayed the process and put the stakes even higher for the fate of women’s rights. Febb was educated and held a career as a teacher in Tennessee; she was smart and knew how important it was for women to win this fight. She knew of the pressure her son might have been facing and saw his hesitation and reluctance, so she decided to write to him that the efforts of the suffragettes should not go unheard and to vote in favor of the movement. Though it was behind the scenes, Febb Ensminger Burn made history that day.

Citations

1930 US Federal Census, Febb E. Burn

Cohen, Jennie. “The Mother Who Saved Suffrage: Passing the 19th Amendment.” History. August 16, 2010. https://www.history.com/news/the-mother-who-saved-suffrage-passing-the-19th-amendment

Find a Grave, Febb Esminger Burn

“Harry T. Burn.” National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/people/harry-t-burn.htm

Nunley, Esther. “Desk of Febb Ensminger Burn Donated to Museum.” Daily Post Athenian. July 21, 2017. https://www.dailypostathenian.com/community/article_217c0300-6e1c-11e7-8086-10604b9f0f42.html

The Nineteeth Amendment and After, Wm. L Marbury, Virginia Law Review, Oct., 1920, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1064407

Sarah Grider

Sarah Grider is a student of the 2021 Spring Discovering Digital History class at the Ramapo College of New Jersey. She is currently studying History and Museum & Exhibition Studies. She is an editorial assistant for the Jane Addams Papers Project.

To be born and raised in the United States of America but denied citizenship and the right to vote; this was the unfortunate reality for Native Americans all over the nation. Within their own communities, Indigenous Peoples were often based on chiefdoms, whether they were hereditary or through social status, which served as a type of self-government. Nonetheless, they were still barred from participating in the United States government and were not seen as citizens in the eyes of government officials. The Snyder Act, also called the Indian Citizenship Act, was put into action in 1924 and granted citizenship, and thus the right to vote, to Native Americans. The debate of whether Native Americans should be considered citizens in the eyes of the United States was still heavy in the air; so much so that the Snyder Act was left up to the states to decide if they would follow through with granting Native Americans the right to vote. While now Native Americans were recognized as citizens and taxed as such, they still could not use their voices in many states for decades after the Snyder Act was enacted. Several other laws sought out to privatize and distribute Native American reservation to white, non-Indigenous land owners for several years before the Snyder Act was passed. This became possible through the Dawes Act and later the Burke Act.

Through the Dawes Act, or General Allotment Act of 1887, the government divided Native American reservation into plots allotted for certain members of several communities. The government considered many Native Americans to be incapable of running their allotment, as well as all of the financial dealings that came along with it, and thus their land was seized and put back into the hands of the government. From there, it could be distributed and sold to private landowners who were not Ten years earlier, the Fifteenth Amendment barred the restriction of voting rights based on race. Even then, Native Americans were not included and could not yet take part in elections. Once the Snyder Act was passed, they were explicitly granted access to vote through the bill attached with a sneaky loophole; the state government had control over whether they would adopt voting rights for Native Americans. This led to many states still restricting Native Americans to vote, even though they should have had access. Their rights were never guaranteed nor protected by the government.

Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendment

The Fourteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution in 1868 and granted citizenship to all persons born within the US. Before this, the government had made it clear that Native Americans did not belong to any part of the United States government due to the fact that Native Americans had their own tribal legislation and government. Even if an individual were to leave his or her tribe to assimilate, they would most likely be unable to obtain rights as a U.S. citizen considering they were not white and not seen as equal.

The Fifteenth Amendment, however, was added to the Constitution two years later and stated that no citizen shall be denied the right to vote based on their race or skin color. Keeping in mind that the United States government did not see Native Americans as citizens, they still could not gain access to a seemingly inalienable right. It was not until many years later that an amendment would attempt to patch the division through the Snyder Act and even many years after that.

The Dawes Act and the Burke Act

Just seven years after the Fifteenth Amendment, in 1887, the government passed the General Allotment Act or the Dawes Act. This was a blatant division and destruction of Native land hidden under the guise of government aid, as control of the reservation was often taken away from the Native Americans and put into the hands of the government instead. Not only this, but the Dawes Act enabled the possibility white landowners to take control of Native American reservation instead of the intended owners. It privatized land ownership instead of being own by the tribe as a whole. This had been exacerbated in 1906 when the Burke Act passed and explicitly put the government in charge of determining the competence of Native American landowners. Once the government had determined the owner as fully able to control their own land, the land was then taxed which led to financial turmoil for many Native Americans and resulted in a mass loss of reservation. If the government deemed the owner unfit to care for their land, it was taken from them and put into other hands. This meant that Native American reservations were not always controlled by the rightful owner.

The Snyder Act

With so many amendments and bills passed with little to no change in Native American rights, the Snyder Act seemed like it would be a change headed in the right direction; and it was, for some Native Americans. The 1920s were proving to be a more progressive era than the nation had seen in the past. Social norms were changing rapidly and Americans were shifting their beliefs. As mentioned earlier, the policy varied from state to state, as the federal government left it up to the states to make the final decision. This meant that many states refused to grant voting rights to Native Americans for nearly forty years. An argument against suffrage for Native Americans was that since they still partially belonged to their tribe, then they could not be full United States citizens as their loyalty was already pledged elsewhere. It was an unfair ruling that left many Native Americans stuck between two worlds; their culture had been decimated and assimilated through colonization and the new nation responsible for this refused to see them as equals. They had little to no control of their land and, at every second, the government was seeking new loopholes to restrict them of their rights.

Protection of Native Americans

There was opposition to this discrimination; Zitkala-Ša, Marie Louise Bottineau Baldwin, and Carlos Montezuma were all Native Americans who spoke out and made significant strides for suffrage and equality. They knew of the secrecy and deceit within the Constitution and amendments so they actively worked against it to move towards a nation that accepted everyone. Zitkala-Ša formed the National Council of American Indians in 1926, just two years after the passing of the Snyder Act. She worked tirelessly for Native American voters and equality for all through several different organizations that she established. The NCAI aimed to protect Native Americans and keep their culture and history alive. She was adamant on keeping the voice of Native Americans alive and strong through voting drives, lectures, and fundraisers.

Ša, Montezuma, and Baldwin worked together, as well, through the Society for American Indians which was formed in 1911 by Montezuma. The SAI deviated from other groups for suffrage, as it encouraged assimilation and submission of land when the Dawes Act first was enacted. It also focused on ways to provide health services and education to Native Americans as well as how they can invoke change in the government.

Relation to the 1920s

The 1920s are often thought to be a time of glamor and new-age ideals; women courted and wore short skirts, businesses began to adopt leisure activities, and there was a rise in the entertainment industry. While these were all true aspects of the 1920s, these luxuries only applied to a portion of the American population. Native Americans, even with the passing of the Snyder Act, could not vote in every state. There were multiple laws in action, leading up to the Snyder Act and following it, that intentionally kept Native Americans apart from becoming US citizens. The Snyder Act seemed to be a very progressive law that would ignite change for civil rights, especially within the Native American community, however it left many open gates for states to continue to deny suffrage to them. In states where Native Americans could vote, there was always the chance of voter intimidation or suppression tactics such as voting literacy tests and turning away Native Americans at the polls.

The Native American fight for suffrage in America rose during 1924 after the Snyder Act, as they had come so close to gaining the right to vote yet it was inaccessible to many. They gained citizenship in a country they spent their entire lives in, yet they could not vote.

Bibliography

“Carlos Montezuma.” Wassaja: A Carlos Montezuma Project. http://wassaja.lib.asu.edu/people-archive/carlos-montezuma

“Fighting for a Voice: Native Americans’ Right to Vote in Arizona.” Arizona Historical Society. July 15, 2020. https://arizonahistoricalsociety.org/2020/07/15/fighting-for-a-voice-native-americans-right-to-vote-in-arizona/

“History of Federal Voting Rights Laws.” The United States Department of Justice. https://www.justice.gov/crt/history-federal-voting-rights-laws

“Indian Citizenship Act.” Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/june-02/

“Land Tenure History.” Indian Land Tenure Foundation. https://iltf.org/land-issues/history/

Maltz, Earl M., “The Fourteenth Amendment and Native American Citizenship.” University of Minnesota Law School. 2000. https://scholarship.law.umn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1299&context=concomm

“Marie Louise Bottineau Baldwin.” National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/people/marie-louise-bottineau-baldwin.htm

“Society of American Indians.” National Historical Publications and Records Commission. https://www.archives.gov/nhprc/projects/catalog/society-of-american-indians

“Voting Rights for Native Americans.” Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/elections/right-to-vote/voting-rights-for-native-americans/“Zitkala-Ša (Red Bird/Gertrude Simmons Bonnin).” National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/people/zitkala-sa.htm

Sarah Grider

Sarah Grider is a student of the 2021 Spring Discovering Digital History class at the Ramapo College of New Jersey. She is currently studying History and Museum & Exhibition Studies. She is an editorial assistant for the Jane Addams Papers Project.

King Tutankhamun

King Tutankhamun’s tomb was exhumed on February 16, 1923, by archaeologist Howard Carter along with a group of historians and important figures in the world at the time. The discovery of this tomb shocked the world as it opened up a time portal to the past treasures of Ancient Egypt. Upon entering the tomb, they were greeted with golden figures and deep blues of lapis lazuli. Decorative inscriptions and insignia left to protect Tutankhamun in his journey to the afterlife were captivating to those who viewed it and left society engrossed in the lifestyle of royalty in Ancient Egypt. King Tut was immortalized in a scene of wealth and gold, and was celebritized thousands of years later for exactly that scene.

When photographs of the findings started to become published to the public, the craze of Egyptian treasures and mystery grew. While there was an overall interest in Ancient Egypt for years before the discovery of the tomb, it reached new highs and left a heavier influence of fashion, makeup, furniture, and fabrics; adding to the new-founded art deco aesthetic. American society sought to replicate the beauty of Egyptian culture within their own lives, and so the United States saw a surge in King Tut-related advertisements, music, books, and movies. He was sensationalized by the media and saw the relics in his tombs as alluring artwork.

King Tutankhamun’s Influence on Society

King Tutankhamun’s rise in popularity was fueled by the American desire to have similar Egyptian treasures of their own. Some parallels can be drawn between the two eras of history; both have been remembered for their lavish lifestyles, unique fashion, and technological advances. As seen in the image above, Egyptian influence on fashion was a key part in the fashion of the 1920s. Short shift dresses often worn by women and men in Ancient Egypt can be seen as similar to the newer, shorter dresses donned by a younger society of women wanting to break free from the modest norm. Statement jewelry of gold and precious jewels were a staple in both eras of history and signified wealth and social status.

Aside from societal revolution, the public exhumation of the tomb brought about a new surge of interest in archaeology and the history found through it. It amazed the public that such an old civilization could have such beautiful and long-lasting treasures. The public became obsessed with these findings, which further fueled the craze for Egyptian history.

The image taken from a New York Times article published on February 16, 1923 further proves the amazement that the public had for King Tutankhamun. Language such as, “dazzled,” “undreamed of splendors,” and “king in nest of shrines,” shows how this discovery took the world by storm. It was truly made out to be luxurious turn of events for historians and the public. The article continues to fawn over the tremendous discoveries inside of the Pharaoh’s final resting place; vivid vocabulary describes the picture of the discovery to be other-worldly and beyond beautiful. It was no wonder the world became so infatuated with King Tutankhamun, as the media was glamorizing the artifacts he was buried with. King Tut was left with his physical wealth at his side, something humans have long been obsessed with; ways to showcase and immortalize their wealth. Tut-mania in the 1920s continued this trend, specifically with the Egyptians in mind, by publishing media and fashion based around it.

Relation to the 1920s

Tut-mania and its influence on the decade of the 1920s proves to be very prominent as time goes on. Fashion trends of this time period were heavily influenced by the findings in King Tutankhamun’s tomb as well as other groundbreaking discoveries in Egyptology. Dresses of the 1920s were decorated in beadwork and embroidery akin to Egyptian art and motifs. Makeup looks of the decade had an emphasis on black kohl eyeliner around the eyes, which was very similar to the style the Egyptians had used thousands of years ago. Society in the United States, especially, drew a lot of inspiration from the findings in King Tutankhamun’s tomb. As mentioned previously, it held significant contribution to the Art Deco style that was frequently used in this time period and leading up into the 1930s. Use of color in furniture in art show a very strong resemblance to the colors often used in Ancient Egyptian art.

Aside from fashion and art, King Tutankhamun served as a cultural icon during the 1920s as the obsession and craze for him grew. His likeness and name were used all throughout media; entire theaters were dedicated to the Egyptian architecture and design. Movies and plays were centered around the Pharaoh, as well as music and lyrics telling his story to the modern world. The 1920s was a rich source of Egyptian revival media that has impacted the way society views the region as a whole. The infatuation with Egyptian culture has led many to glorify the era instead of viewing it as a place full of historical significance.

The impact that Tut-mania had on society in the 1920s was responsible for a good amount of the history we remember today. From an outside perspective, it almost seems as if the fashion and art of the 1920s was a callback to the enchanting lifestyles of Egyptian royalty, such as King Tutankhamun. As written earlier, the fashion of short shift dresses and elaborate jewelry to decorate the body seems to be very akin to the fashion and jewelry discovered in King Tutankhamun’s tomb. It is arguable that Tut-mania helped to shape the 1920s into the lavish and memorable decade it is remembered as today.

Citations

Danton, William. “Tutmania: An Exploration of Western Portrayals of King Tutankhamun and Orientalism in Egypt.” University of Puget Sound. May 15, 2019. https://soundideas.pugetsound.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1035&context=history_theses

“Tut-Ankh-Amen’s Inner Tomb is Opened”, The New York Times, February 16, 1923 

Sarah Grider

Sarah Grider is a student of the 2021 Spring Discovering Digital History class at the Ramapo College of New Jersey. She is currently studying History and Museum & Exhibition Studies. She is an editorial assistant for the Jane Addams Papers Project.

This is not to say that the 1920s consisted of all things good; I also think about the Jim Crow laws plaguing the southern United States. I think about the inequality of humans during this time and how Black and other people of color were not guaranteed the same freedoms and rights as whites. Unlike women, Black people and other people of color did not gain the right to vote and would not gain it for many decades to come. I also think about the crash of the economy in the late 1920s which led to the Great Depression of the United States.

After finding a few images to learn more about the 1920s, I can see that it truly was a time of new technological advancements, a shift in the social settings and societal norms, as well as a politically changing environment. The first image shows a group of friends having their picture taken at a fair with balloons in their hands. Perhaps they had just finished a game at a fair booth, or will soon grab food from another booth. This type of fun event is what I am reminded of when thinking about the 1920s.

The second image is a camera and video set recording a group of flapper dancers, which was something I had mentioned earlier; the rise in motion pictures as well as new dances and fashion for women. The women seem to be wearing elaborate dresses with bows as well as a statement hat on their head. The background which they are being filmed against also seems to have a lot of visual effects occurring, which only adds to the effect of the glamorous 1920s cinema.

This was a time where America saw many different changes; women gained the right to vote; cars, cameras, and other technological advancements began to take priority; and towards the end of the decade, the financial shift following the economic crash of 1929. It was an ever-changing time with so much rich history to tell. The 1920s were not as glamorous throughout the United States; racial tensions were high and many people still lived in poverty. It was definitely a time with endless history attached to it.

Sarah Grider

Sarah Grider is a student of the 2021 Spring Discovering Digital History class at the Ramapo College of New Jersey. She is currently studying History and Museum & Exhibition Studies. She is an editorial assistant for the Jane Addams Papers Project.