Now that the semester is coming to an end and I have thoroughly explored and researched the “Roaring Twenties”, I can say with confidence that my perspective on the decade has changed. In my initial post about the 1920s, I mentioned that the decade was much more than one big party with jazz music and flappers. While this idea still holds true, I underestimated the abundance and diversity of the events, movements, and people within the 1920s.

Most notably, I can say with confidence that I no longer have such an Americanized view on the decade. Throughout elementary school, high school, and oftentimes college, history is taught through an American perspective. As a result, there is a great emphasis on events that happened in America or affected the country in some way. While conducting my research for each post, I learned that the 1920s was much more than just a decade of great change for America. Although that statement seems obvious, students have a tendency to focus on America because that is really all we learned about in history classes. Even though my blog posts do fall into the same pattern, the topics encouraged me to do research outside of what was happening in America at the time. Overall, I believe that an international perspective and a less stereotypical idea of the decade were missing from my original ideas. 

With this in mind, if I had to pick one word to describe the entire decade, I would choose the world “dynamic”. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word dynamic is used to describe something that is “marked by usually continuous or productive activity or change”. From both an international perspective and an American perspective, the word dynamic seems to describe the 1920s perfectly. From the very beginning of the decade to the very last second in 1929, there was not a moment of rest. In many different ways, what occurred during the 1920s would change the course of the world forever. From technological advancements and scientific discoveries to cultural movements and establishments of new governments, the 1920s was chaotic and constantly changing. It is difficult to pinpoint a single defining event or movement that characterized the decade because there were just so many things going on.

Given that I now have a new understanding of “Roaring Twenties”, when talking about the decade in the future, I will be sure to avoid making the same mistakes I did in the past. Instead of generalizing the decade, I would emphasize that there is so much more to the 1920s than just what happened in America. There is an entire world’s history that American students, teachers, and citizens seem to forget about. In my future conversations, I will also make sure that I bring up and talk about lesser known events, movements, and people that happened in America. Since the 1920s was such a dynamic time, there is no need to constantly talk about Prohibition, flappers, and jazz music. While these were important and life might have been different without them, there is just so much more to discover and learn about.

Rachel Olivo

Rachel is a junior at Ramapo College of New Jersey taking Discovering Digital History in the Spring of 2021. She is studying History and Education and is looking forward to becoming a teacher after graduating.

Towards the very beginning of 1925, the Tennessee state legislature approved a bill that banned the teaching of any theory that went against the story of Divine Creation, as taught in the Bible. John Scopes, a high school science teacher living and working in Dayton, Tennessee, agreed to be put on trial for violating the law in order to bring attention to its unconstitutional basis. 

Throughout the trial, both Clarence Darrow, Scopes’ attorney, and William Jennings Bryan, the prosecutor representing the state of Tennessee, interviewed and cross-examined several witnesses. The document below features portions of Darrow’s cross-examinations of four witnesses, the superintendent of the high school, two of Scopes’ students, and an esteemed member of the community. The written transcript of the witnesses’ testimonies proves the absurdity of the Tennessee law and helps demonstrate why Scopes got off with the most inconsequential punishment for the crime. In regard to the larger narrative of the 1920s, this record demonstrates the transition in America from a country based on religious fundamentalism to one with secular beliefs and institutions.     

Record of Witness Testimony Document

Document Text

VIII

The Witnesses

Having presented the opening statement of the prosecution, the State called upon its first witness, Superintendent White of the Dayton public schools. He testified that he had talked with Mr. Scopes¹ the day before the latter’s arrest:

“I told him that he had violated the law, but he said he had to teach science², and the law was unconstitutional anyway.”

On cross-examination, the witness admitted that the textbook, Hunter’s “Civic Biology³,” from which the defendant taught, had been specified for school use by the State School Book Commission.

When Mr. Darrow⁴ read sections from this book concerning evolution, Mr. Stewart⁵ offered a King James version of the Bible in evidence.⁶ Mr. Hays⁷ objected, asking: “What is the Bible? Who is to say this King James version is the Bible? The prosecution must tell us.” When the Court overruled the objection, the Bible was admitted as an exhibit.⁸  

Howard Morgan, 14 years of age, a pupil of Mr. Scopes, testified that the defendant had told his class that “in the beginning the earth was too hot for any life, it had cooled off, then the sea and land were formed, plant life in the sea began with a one-celled animal, which finally evoluted until it got bigger and a land animal and then got to be a man”; and that the teacher had classified man as a mammal, along with horses, cats, dogs, and other animals.

Cross-examined by Mr. Darrow, the boy could not tell what his teacher had meant by “classified.”

Mr. Darrow-He didn’t say a cat became a man, did he?

Howard-He said that man had reasoning powers and the other animals didn’t.

Mr. Darrow-There’s no doubt about that [Laughter], but we’ll let it pass if he said it. Did he tell you mammals were cats, dogs, elephants, horses, and whales?

Howard-I don’t know about whales.

Mr. Darrow-Never saw a whale suckle its young?

Howard-No, sir.

Mr. Darrow-Did he ever tell you anything else wicked?

Howard-Mr. Scopes said the earth was once a molten mass of liquid.

Mr. Darrow-That it melted?

Howard- Yes, sir.

Mr. Darrow-That it slowly cooled, a crust formed, soul came, grass grew, the first life in the sea developed into the highest form, man? That’s about what he taught?

Howard-Yes, sir.

Mr. Darrow-Did it hurt you any?

Howard-No, sir.

Harry Shelton, 17, on direct examination testified about as Howard did as to the Scopes teaching, and on cross-examination said his teacher had told him all life came from a single cell.

Mr. Darrow-Any one ever tell you different?

Harry-No, sir.

Mr. Darrow-You, a church member, still belong, still believe in church although you were told all life comes from a single cell?

Harry-Yes, sir.⁹

F. E. Robinson¹⁰, owner of the Dayton drug store, testified that he had sold the biological textbook in question for several years.

Mr. Darrow-Notice any signs of moral deterioration in the community since you’ve been selling them?

Mr. Robinson-No. [Laughter]   

Here the state, although it had five other witnesses ready, rested its case.¹¹

Sources

• Allen, Leslie H. Bryan and Darrow at Dayton. The Record and Documents of the “Bible-Evolution Trial”. New York: Arthur Lee & Company, 1925.
• HathiTrust. “Bryan and Darrow at Dayton: the Record and Documents of the “Bible-Evolution Trial“. University of Michigan. Accessed April 2021.

Additional Sources

• American Civil Liberties Union. “State of Tennessee V. Scopes.” ACLU. Accessed April 2021.
• Millstein, Roberta L. “Evolution.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2019.
• PublicBroadcasting Service. “John Scopes.” American Experience, PBS. Accessed February 2021.
• “Tom Stewart.” Wikipedia. Last modified December 19, 2020.
• “Why the King James Bible of 1611 Remains the Most Popular Translation in History.” The History Channel. Last modified April 16, 2019.

Rachel Olivo

Rachel is a junior at Ramapo College of New Jersey taking Discovering Digital History in the Spring of 2021. She is studying History and Education and is looking forward to becoming a teacher after graduating.

Born in the later half of the 1910s, Charles Wright Mills was an esteemed American sociologist who was heavily influenced by the theories and ideals of German sociologists.¹ In particular, the ideals and theories of Max Weber had the greatest impact on Mills.² Weber’s speculations on the distinctions of class, status, and power and their impact in social, political, and economic systems defined much of Mills’ work. Besides White Collar: the American Middle Class, Mills has written several other significant books including The New Men of Power: America’s Labor Leaders and The Power Elite.

An Overview of White Collar

Published in 1951, Mills’ White Collar, does not address the 1920s as its own decade disconnected from the rest of American history. Instead, Mills takes the reader through several decades by analyzing the effect of class and social status on one’s power in the social, political, and economic systems in America. Accordingly, Mills argues that because of their large presence in society, middle class white-collared workers have transformed the definition of what it means to be an American.³ As a result, Mills views this population as a wealth of social, political, and economic power with enough influence to drastically change the course of the country. However, White Collar also analyzes the struggle between big organizations and expressive, self-directed work.⁴ This highlights the struggle for power between the American middle class and large, powerful companies that dominated much of the 1920s, as well as the greater twentieth century.

How does White Collar fit into the larger historiography of the 1920s?

It is argued that Mills’ White Collar fits almost perfectly in the typical narrative of 1920s historiography given that it was published in the early 1950s. There are striking parallels between Mills’ work and best-selling fiction novels such as The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit by Sloan Wilson and Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger.⁵ Published in 1995 and 1951 respectively, these fictional novels demonstrate the psychological and sociological ideas that Mills has incorporated into White Collar. While White Collar is not a fictional novel and it can be directly connected to sociology, the parallels are not a coincidence. Instead, they prove that at the time when White Collar was written and published, many other historians, authors, and everyday people shared a similar perspective on the 1920s.

What does White Collar provide to a reader interested in the 1920s?

For a reader interested in learning about the 1920s, White Collar provides a more psychological and sociological perspective into the decade. Given that Mills was largely influenced by the work of Weber, it can be inferred that White Collar offers the reader insight into American classism, focusing mostly on the power and effect of the white-collared workers in the middle class. Although Mills’ White Collar does not concentrate solely on the 1920s, it establishes concepts and makes speculations that can be applied to both the larger narrative of the twentieth century and the specific decade of the “Roaring Twenties”.

Bibliography

• The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “C. Wright Mills: American Sociologist.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified March 16, 2021. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/C-Wright-Mills.
• Mills, C. Wright. White Collar: The American Middle Class. New York: Oxford University Press, 1951.
• Rytina, Steven. “Youthful Vision, Youthful Promise, Through Midlife Bifocals: C. Wright Mills’ ‘White Collar’ Turns 50.” Sociological Forum 16, No. 3 (September, 2001): 563-574.

Rachel Olivo

Rachel is a junior at Ramapo College of New Jersey taking Discovering Digital History in the Spring of 2021. She is studying History and Education and is looking forward to becoming a teacher after graduating.

Historical Content

Primary Sources

In the section about the 1920s, there are several subsections that include relevant and useful primary sources. Under the music, film, images, and documents categories, there are audio clips with popular songs from the decade, images of paintings, magazines, and photographs, working links to film trailers, and excepts from important documents. For the images and movie trailers featured on the website, it is obvious where they came from. For images, the title, creator, media type, and year are all listed and credit is given to the source it was retrieved from. Similarly, for the movie trailers included on the site, the name, year, and a description of the film are listed directly above the trailer’s link. Likewise, once a particular one is selected, documents from the decade are properly cited and have an annotation from the author. However, the documents on the website are not in their original form, rather they have been typed up and some have been formatted to get directly to the point of the document. Surprisingly, the songs featured on the website and their corresponding audio clips are listed with very little information, only the song’s title is available to the viewer.

Secondary Sources

There are a number of essays featured on the “Digital History” website within the 1920s category and when combined, the essays cover almost all of the highlights of the decade. Starting at the very beginning of the 1920s with the postwar Red Scare and continuing all the way to the end of the decade with events such as the election of 1928, the essays provide the reader with an extensive outline. Before the more detailed essays, there is a general overview of the decade, giving the viewer a simple synopsis and the option to dive deeper into a specific topic of their choice. From the credits section of the website, it is implied that Steven Mintz, a history professor at the University of Texas at Austin, is the author of all of these essays.

Along with the essays, there are also two episodes of Engines of Our Ingenuity, a radio program that seeks to tell the story of how culture is formed and influenced by human creativity, included in the 1920s section. Started in 1988 by John Lienhard, Engines of Our Ingenuity is still creating content and being broadcasted on public radio stations to this day. Each episode can be found on their website with a transcription and a link for the audio clip.

Creators

It is extremely easy to find the creators of this website, both the authors and the partners of the website can be found after clicking “Credit” and “Partners” at the bottom of any page on the website. Under “Credits”, there is first an explanation of the website’s goal and why it was created. After that, it lists the collaborative team that put everything together. As previously noted, Steven Mintz, the history professor, was in charge of all the historical content available on the website. Following Mintz, the next creator listed is Sara McNeil, an associate professor of curriculum and instruction at the University of Houston, who designed the website and created its featured curriculum. The host of The Engines of Our Ingenuity, John Lienhard, a mechanical engineering professor at the University of Houston, follows McNeil. Next is Grace Lin, an assistant professor at the University of Hawaii, who helped develop the database for the website, as well as help create the website’s codes. Lastly, credit is given to University of Houston’s Michael Rapp has been tasked with managing the website’s technical support needs. 

Search Methods and Accessibility

It is extremely easy to navigate this website because on the main page of the website, there are four categories with links that take the visitor to exactly what they need. The four categories are eras, topics, resources, and references. In each overarching category, there are subcategories that further breakdown and organize the abundance of information. The 1920s section is located under the the “Eras” category.    

Since the search feature on the website is enhanced by Google, several promoted websites and advertisements appear before the results from the website itself do. While this can be a little frustrating, the search feature does accomplish its intended job. On the same page as the search bar, there is an organized site map that is extremely helpful, as it includes everything on the website with embedded links.

Given that the website was created in 2018, its functionality and organization are fairly modern. It does, however, appear to be a work-in-progress because some sections of the website have a disclaimer at the top stating they are still being worked on.

Trustworthiness

In my opinion, this website is trustworthy because it has been written and created by professors at large and reputable universities. Furthermore, the website was supported by several important historical and educational organizations.   

How can it be used for 1920s research?

All matters considered, this website appears to be extremely informative and would be useful for an individual looking to learn more about the 1920s. Given the wide range of topics included, the analysis of primary sources, the incorporation of different mediums such as timelines, radio episodes, and virtual exhibitions, and all of the other resources included on the website, there is almost everything someone could need to learn all about the 1920s in one spot. Not only would this website be beneficial for a student or a curious individual, but it also has resources and content for teachers. 

Bibliography

• Mint, S. and S. McNeil. Digital History. 2018. Accessed March 2021. Retrieved from http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/index.cfm.

Rachel Olivo

Rachel is a junior at Ramapo College of New Jersey taking Discovering Digital History in the Spring of 2021. She is studying History and Education and is looking forward to becoming a teacher after graduating.

By the start of the new decade, much of Russia had been destroyed and devastated by the Russian Revolution. Therefore, when the party that had supposedly fought for the workers and peasants, the Bolsheviks, came to power, the Russian people were hopeful. Unfortunately, at the very beginning of the 1920s, the government, and the overall country, still showed no signs of improvement. 

The main goal of the Bolsheviks was to create a picture-perfect communist society but in reality, the Russian people did not have the same objectives. One of the most notable grey areas was in the agricultural industry. The peasants who had received land from the former upper class believed that they would be working on their own and for themselves.¹ However, the Bolshevik government had very different plans.

Economic Chaos and Civil Unrest

Just like the true definition of a communist society, the Bolsheviks wanted to create a powerful communist country that had no class systems, no personal property, and no state violence.² However, when the Bolsheviks began telling the working class farmers that they had no right to sell their crop or keep any significant amount of their harvest for themselves, people became angry.³ Farmers tried to evade the laws they saw as unfair. As a result, the Bolsheviks sent “prodotryads”, or food brigades, into villages to forcefully confiscate the crops.⁴ The confiscated food was supposed to go to the Russian cities and armies but it never made it and a long and catastrophic famine struck Russia.

Before the famine, the Bolsheviks had planned to bring the food to the cities in exchange for industrial goods, such as clothing, shoes, and farm equipment, for the farmers.⁵ Yet, it had been a while since the factories had produced any significant amount of product. Many of the workers stopped going to work when they stopped getting paid.⁶ Consequently, once the food sources and the material goods disappeared, the country’s money quickly followed. Without money, food was “purchased” with ration cards. Payments for commodities such as public transportation stopped because public transportation had to be abolished.⁷ While certain aspects of this new reality resembled a perfect communist society, the quality of life was far from ideal and the Bolshevik government recognized that something drastic needed to be done.

A New Beginning and a New Economy

In the early months of 1921, under the guidance of Vladimir Lenin, the Premier of the Soviet Union at the time, the New Economic Policy was instituted.⁸ The New Economic Policy, or NEP, drastically changed the Russian economy and the way of life for the Russian people.

The NEP combined the controlled communist economy of Russia with capitalist elements that gave it the energy and direction needed to revitalize the entire country.⁹ Under the NEP, some private commerce was allowed. The farmers, who had previously been required to give the government the majority of their harvest, only had to hand over a small amount. They could sell, keep, or do whatever they wanted to do with the rest.¹⁰ Individual farmers could rent new land and hire farm laborers who were paid at the discretion of the farmer.¹¹ Individually-owned businesses, shops, and restaurants began to populate towns and cities, returning life in Russia to the way it once was.¹² As private businesses became more common throughout the country, a surprising connection was growing between the Soviet Union and the United States of America.

American Involvement

Throughout world history, there has seemingly always been a great amount of tension between the Soviet Union, or Russia, and the United States. This is because any relations between the two powerful countries has been driven by idealogical, political, and economic factors.¹³ As a consequence, there has always been feelings of distrust and bitter rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United States.¹⁴ Yet, despite the vast differences between the two powers, the 1920s was a period of willing economic cooperation. Since Lenin’s NEP encouraged elements of capitalism, it opened the door for Western businessmen and diplomats.¹⁵ For a variety of reasons, including compassion, sympathy, and the pursuit of profits, many Americans took an interest in the developing economy.¹⁶ Among the businessmen from the United States, the most notable were Averell Harriman, Armand Hammer, and Henry Ford.¹⁷ 

Like many other businessmen, Henry Ford took advantage of the Soviet Union’s floundering economy. For several years, there were exploratory visits and friendly negotiations. Finally, Ford Motor Company finally signed an extremely significant agreement with the Soviet Union on May 31, 1929.¹⁸ While the economy had grown since the start of the decade, the Soviet Union had very few cars and barely any factories to support the manufacturing of motor vehicles.¹⁹ The Soviet Union signing a contract with an American businessman was a huge deal, for both the U.S.S.R. and the world.

The contract that Ford and the Soviet Union agreed upon stated that Ford would oversee the construction of a production plant that would manufacture Model A cars.²⁰ It also formalized that an assembly plant would start operating in the city of Moscow, bringing motor vehicles and new Ford tractors directly to the Russian people.²¹ Part of the contract also stated that the Soviet Union would buy unassembled Ford cars and trucks and in return, the Ford Motor Company would send engineers and executives to the Soviet Union to oversee and assist with the project.²²   

The contract between the Soviet Union and the Ford Motor Company was groundbreaking. All throughout the 1920s, the American government never formally recognized the Soviet Union in diplomatic negotiations.²³ Therefore, the actions of businessmen and diplomats, such as Henry Ford, changed the way the world viewed the Soviet Union. Moreover, the contract was about more than just the profits and diplomatic relations. Ford had always been independent and a strong advocate for the free-market and capitalism. He believed that introducing strong elements of capitalism to the Soviet Union would help undermine its communism.²⁴ Not only were Western businessmen encouraged by money and expansion, but also by saving the economy that allowed them to flourish.

Significance

The relationship that developed between the United States and the Soviet Union as a result of early economic cooperation was extremely important for several reasons. In the context of the 1920s, the economic connection between the two countries allowed for American businessmen to not only expand their business, but also expand American diplomacy. Throughout the 1920s and into the early 1930s, the unofficial commercial ties between the two countries created a foundation for future cooperation, dialogue, and diplomatic relations.²⁵ Shortly after the end of the “Roaring Twenties”, the delicate bond between the countries would be put to the test. In 1941, with the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. The United States, along with several other Western countries, would form an alliance with the Soviet Union. It is evident that American businessmen in the 1920s helped create the basis of this successful alliance. 

Why did I Choose to Write About the Economic Relations Between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R?

There is no denying that the 1920s were a turbulent, yet exciting, decade. However, in my experience, high school history classes only taught about what happened in America during this time. For example, almost every American high school student has learned about the 19th Amendment, the Harlem Renaissance, and Prohibition. While all of these topics are important and are significant to American history, the whole world is not just the United States. For this reason, I wanted to investigate a topic that addressed something outside of the United States. One way to do this was to research a specific aspect of U.S. foreign policy. Prior to picking this topic, I knew that the United States and Russia had a complicated history and thus, examining their relationship throughout the 1920s seemed like the perfect solution. 

Bibliography

• Feature Image: “Assembly Line at Ford Motor Company Moscow Plant, 1930.” The Henry Ford. November 6, 1930.
• “Ford Motor Company Signs Agreement with Soviet Union.” History. Last modified May 28, 2020.
• Library of Congress. “Revelations from the Russian Archives.” LOC. Accessed April 2021.
• “One Step Backward…: 1921: Lenin’s New Economic Policy.” Russian Life 54, No. 2 (March/April 2011): 19-22.  
• Smirnov, Sergey. “Economic Fluctuations in Russia (From the Late 1920s to 2015.” Russian Journal of Economics 1, No. 2 (June 2015): 130-153.

Rachel Olivo

Rachel is a junior at Ramapo College of New Jersey taking Discovering Digital History in the Spring of 2021. She is studying History and Education and is looking forward to becoming a teacher after graduating.

In the twenty-first century, people often take their phones, laptops, and other forms of technology for granted. Yet, not too long ago, all people had for technology was the radio and the daily newspaper was their entertainment. The 1920s, a decade of extreme social, political, and economic change, also brought with another huge change. The way in which people consumed entertainment, news, and various other forms of media would drastically change in this decade. Yet, without a young boy from Utah, Philo Farnsworth, the 1920s may have never seen the birth of the television as we know it today. 

Philo Farnsworth

Philo Taylor Farnsworth was born on August 19, 1906 in southwestern Utah.¹ Most of his childhood was spent growing up in the community settled by his grandfather. In the small, log-structured home that Farnsworth spent his childhood in, there was nothing but a few modern convinces to make everyday life easier.² His parents, Lewis and Serena, had very little money and as a result, Farnsworth’s childhood home did not have electricity.³ However, when he was just twelve years old, Farnsworth’s family moved to a spacious ranch in Rigby, Idaho.⁴ Farnsworth’s family would be moving in with extended family but Farnsworth did not seem to mind, especially since his new home had electricity.⁵

The young boy had always dreamed of becoming an inventor but it was on the ranch that his obsession with electronic components began.⁶ At only fifteen, Farnsworth begged his high school chemistry teacher to give him special instruction and allow him to audit a senior-level class.⁷ Mr. Tolman agreed and quickly realized that the young Farnsworth had an incredible gift, his intelligence. Tolman was not the only high school teacher to see Farnsworth’s genius. After only two years of high school, Farnsworth began his academic career at the Brigham Young University.      

For many students, the transition from high school to college can be confusing and daunting. Yet for Farnsworth, the transition was almost seamless. The young boy took content-heavy college courses and focused on his main interest, electronics.⁸ While taking classes, Farnsworth played around with several ideas for a completely electronic television system.⁹ Unfortunately, the college career of the ambitious Farnsworth was cut short. At the end of his sophomore year, Farnsworth’s father passed away, forcing him to leave Brigham Young University and return home.¹⁰ Although his time in school was over, Farnsworth never stopped experimenting with electronic components and learning from them.  

The Dream

Evidently, Philo Farnsworth was not the first person to imagine the happenings of an electric television. As there were several others working hard to finish the exact same objective, a fully functioning electronic television. For example, Vladimir Zworykin, a Russian electrical engineer, had the skills, intelligence, and dreams for the project.¹¹ However, he was never successful in even building an all-electronic television prototype. The problem many inventors had, including Zworykin, was that they could not find a way to transmit the image data without a single mechanical aspect.¹² Unlike the others, Farnsworth was able to figure out how to create a fully functioning electronic television. Still, there was much in the way between Farnsworth and his goal.

At the same time that Farnsworth and the others were trying to develop an an electronic television, Farnsworth was developing as a person. Being so young, there were many other matters that preoccupied the young inventor. Farnsworth fell in love with a young women named Elma Gardner.¹³ Not too long after meeting, the two got married in 1926 in Utah.¹⁴ At the time, Farnsworth was only twenty years old and had much of his life as an inventor ahead of him. After a year of being married, the couple moved from Utah to San Francisco. This way, Farnsworth would be closer to the motion-picture community and have enough space and help to work on his inventions.¹⁵ Once settled in his loft “laboratory” in San Francisco, Farnsworth, with the help of his wife, a few assistants, and a couple of wealthy investors, got to work on the invention that would forever change his life.

The Television

As previously stated, Farnsworth was not the only individual to think of a fully electronic television. Yet, he was the first person to build a prototype and have successful transmission. On September 7, 1927, Farnsworth had his first successful transmission.¹⁶ He sent an image of a horizontal line to a receiver in another room, where the same horizontal line was displayed on a television screen.¹⁷ It was with his wife and assistant that Farnsworth watched the very first electronic television picture to ever be transmitted.

While his invention changed not only his life, but also the course of the 1920s, it also brought Farnsworth a great deal of pain. Zworykin, the Russian engineer, had a connection to the Radio Corporation of America, a powerful company at the time.¹⁸ Zworykin wanted the fame of being the inventor of the electronic television and the Radio Corporation of America did not want to pay Farnsworth for the right to manufacture the television sets that he had invented.¹⁹ Thus, making the duo a perfect evil pair. However, not everything went as Zworykin and the Radio Corporation of America had hoped. Farnsworth put up a fight and after an intense legal battle, the the U.S. Patent Office awarded priority of the invention to Farnsworth in 1934.²⁰ Tragically, his victory was short lived.

A Tragic Ending

Shortly after the second World War, Farnsworth’s patents expired and the Radio Corporation of America was quick to move in and buy the rights to them. As a result, Zworykin and the chief of the Radio Corporation of America took credit for Farnsworth’s work.²¹ They even went as far as declaring themselves the true inventors of the television.²² After losing all of his hard work, Farnsworth spiraled into a deep depression. He had to be admitted into several hospitals where he endured shock therapy because of his nervous breakdowns.²³ Farnsworth’s fragile state led him to develop a drinking problem and as if life could not be anymore unfair to the “Father of the Television”, Farnsworth’s new home in Maine burned to the ground in 1947.²⁴

After almost an entire lifetime of injustice and defeat, Philo Farnsworth, passed away in March of 1971 in a Salt Lake City hospital.²⁵ Farnsworth was sixty-four years old when he suffered cardiac arrest following a choking spell.²⁶ Farnsworth left behind his wife, his son, and 165 patents in his name when he passed.²⁷ To this day, Farnsworth struggles to receive the recognition he deserves as the true inventor of the electronic television.

Significance

Philo Farnsworth and his natural genius were instrumental to the 1920s. Without his ideas and knowledge on electronic components, the current hundred million televisions in the United States could look very different. Not only that, but when Farnsworth’s invention was first rolled out in the late 1920s, it drastically changed people’s sense of the world.²⁸ Being able to physically see politicians, celebrities, current news, sports games, and anything else one could imagine transformed the world forever. Much more than before, the public began to form opinions on matters based on how it looked. Fashion trends changed to emulate what was seen on the television and gory scenes of war could bring the viewer to the battlefield.

However, Farnsworth’s legacy is more than just his invention of the modern television. Farnsworth’s story is one that demonstrates both the embodiment and downfall of the golden American dream. In his lifetime, Farnsworth accomplished what others were struggling to complete. He was able to successfully create the world’s first completely electronic television. Yet, he barely received credit for his work because of a large company with money and power. His life’s work was stolen from him.

While many people like to view the 1920s as a decade of good times with jazz music in the background, there was also a lot of corruption and dishonestly. It is important to recognize that what the Radio Corporation of America did to Farnsworth happened to many other hardworking Americans.

Why Philo Farnsworth and the Invention of Television?

After a basic search on the invention of the television, it became obvious that its history was complex and confusing. After a little more digging, I found the true answer to the mystery and realized that even to this day, Farnsworth receives little, if any, recognition for his work towards the electronic television. Although more people are beginning to acknowledge Farnsworth, I wanted to give him his moment in history.

Bibliography

• Anthony, Andrew. “A History of Television, the Technology that Seduced the World – And me.” The Guardian online. September 7, 2013.
• “Elma Farnsworth, 98; Aided Husband in Developing Television.” Los Angeles Times online. May 5, 2006.
• Eschner, Kat. “The Farmboy Who Invented the Television.” Smithsonian Magazine online. August 28, 2017.
• Featured Image: J. Willard Marriott Digital Library at the University of Utah. “P.T. Farnsworth with his television receiver-1920 or 30.” Accessed March 2021.
• McPherson, Stephanie. TV’s Forgotten Hero: The Story of Philo Farnsworth. Minnesapols: Carolrhoda Books, October 1, 1996.
• “Philo T. Farnsworth, a Pioneer In Design of Television, Is Dead.” The New York Times online. March 13, 1971.
• Postman, Neil. “Philo Farnsworth.” TIME Magazine online. March 29, 1999.

Rachel Olivo

Rachel is a junior at Ramapo College of New Jersey taking Discovering Digital History in the Spring of 2021. She is studying History and Education and is looking forward to becoming a teacher after graduating.

The “Roaring Twenties” was one of the most dramatic decades that the United States has ever seen. Every year had its fair share of important movements, events, and people, all creating significant changes. There seemed to be nothing else that could surprise the American public. Yet, only a few months into 1925, there was an event that caught the attention of the American public and of those living across the Atlantic ocean.

In March of 1925, Tennessee state legislatures passed the Butler Act. The Butler Act banned the teaching of evolution in all public and private educational institutions. “…Any theory that denies the story of the Divine Creation of man as taught in the Bible…” was a misdemeanor with a fine of up to $500.¹ The American Civil Liberties Union, an organization created to protect the individual rights of American citizens, disliked the passing of the Butler Act. As a result, the ACLU responded by offering to defend any teacher charged under the law.² Yet, instead of waiting for a teacher to break the law, the organization started looking for one willing to challenge it in court. After all, the goal of the ACLU was to get the law overturned by the Supreme Court for being unconstitutional.³ 

As the ACLU searched for a volunteer, businessmen in the small town of Dayton, Tennessee worked out a plan. Dayton was in an economic slump at the time and the town’s “movers and shakers” believed that a controversial trial could help.⁴ Public attention from the trial would undoubtedly bring in money and breathe life back town. Out of all the teachers in the town, the businessmen decided that a young, first-year teacher named John Scopes was their best option. 

John Scopes

By the spring time, John Scopes had just concluded his first year at Rhea County High School. He taught science and coached football, making him the perfect candidate to challenge the Butler Act.⁵ The local businessmen did not waste any time and so they approached Scopes with their plan.

Although Scopes admitted he could not remember actually teaching evolution in his classes, he agreed.⁶ Like many science teachers, he beloved in the theory of evolution over the theory of Divine Creation. Therefore, on May 7, 1925, Scopes was arrested and charged with the criminal activity of teaching evolution.⁷ 

Before the Trial

Although his arrest was intentional, Scopes still needed a good lawyer. As promised, the ACLU became involved and asked renown criminal defense lawyer Clarence Darrow to defend Scopes.⁸ Darrow would work alongside Arthur Garfield Hays, the ACLU’s General Counsel.⁹ On the opposing side was William Jennings Bryan, a former member of the U.S. House of Representatives and former Secretary of State.¹⁰ Bryan was also notorious for his passionate, fundamentalist Christian beliefs.¹¹ Thus, for Bryan, proving Scopes’ guilt was more than political, it was personal.

Much to the delight of Dayton’s businessmen, news of the trial quickly spread across the United States. In fact, news of the upcoming trial was so big that it spread overseas to many European countries.¹² Scopes’ arrest in May brought radio and newspaper reporters, politicians, and tourists from all over the world to Dayton.¹³

While Dayton’s fame did not conclude with the trial’s verdict, the peak of all the activity occurred before the trial and while the court was in session. Food venders, musicians, street preachers, and other performers followed the reporters to Dayton.¹⁴ Soon the small, quiet town developed a carnival-like atmosphere. A preforming chimpanzee even came to entertain the growing crowd of people. It was then that the serious and important trial turned into a circus and was given the name the Scopes “Monkey” Trial.¹⁵ 

The Court’s Proceedings and the Verdict

Finally, on July 10, 1925, the Scopes “Monkey” Trial began. On each day of the trial, roughly a thousand observers and reporters packed themselves into the tiny Rhea County Courthouse.¹⁶ Those who had not made the trip to Tennessee could listen to the court’s proceedings from the comfort of their home. Scopes’ trial was the very first trial to be broadcasted on live radio.¹⁷ 

The trial would be overlooked by Judge John T. Raulston, a conservative, Christian, believer of the Butler Act. Raulston began each court session with a mandatory prayer and refused to let many of Darrow’s witnesses take the stand.¹⁸ These witnesses included scientists and evolutionary experts who could defend Scopes.¹⁹ Thus, Darrow was forced to be creative in his defense. Darrow asked Bryan to take the stand as an expert on the Bible. For several days Darrow interrogated Bryan, asking him about the literal interpretation of the Bible.²⁰ Unfortunately for Bryan, he unknowingly walked right into Darrow’s trap. Darrow tricked Bryan into making statements that contradicted his own beliefs and made him seem foolish.²¹ The jury decided that Scopes was guilty of teaching evolution but he was only fined $100, the minimum amount for the crime.²³ At first, the verdict excited the ACLU because they could appeal to the next level of courts. However, the Tennessee state supreme court overturned the jury’s verdict on a technicality.²⁴ The ACLU would have to find another teacher willing to fight the law all the way to the Supreme Court. In the end, the young teacher was found innocent and the $100 fine was quickly forgotten about.

Significance

Given public interest regarding the Scopes Trial, it is obvious that it had a major impact on the greater narrative of the 1920s. While Bryan won the initial trial, Darrow’s defense won over the American people. Darrow successfully challenged the fundamental beliefs of the Bible. His defense also contested the idea that Divine Creation was the only theory acceptable enough to be taught in schools. Ultimately, the trial highlighted the divide in the United States between modern science and fundamentalism, the word of the Bible.  

I believe that the story of the Scopes “Monkey” Trial reinforces modern ideas and opinions about the 1920s. The “Roaring Twenties” was a decade of rapid change, especially considering all the public challenges to the status-quo. From speakeasies, to flappers, to the cultural revolution that gave us jazz music, the Scopes Trial seems to fit right in as it too demanded change.

Why did I Choose the Scopes “Monkey” Trial?

Out of all the events that occurred during the 1920s, I choose to explore the Scopes Trial. Like many others, I was drawn in by the mass publicity of the event and the conflicting descriptions of a legal trial and a circus. Moreover, as a future teacher myself, I was interested in looking at the involvement of religion in a public school classroom. Especially because today, teaching religious perspectives instead of fact-based ones is essentially prohibited.  

Bibliography

• American Civil Liberties Union. “State of Tennessee V. Scopes.” ACLU. Accessed February 2021.
• Cameron, Jacquelyn and Randy Moore. “Exploring the Scopes ‘Monkey’ Trial in Dayton, Tennessee: A Guide to People & Places.” The American Biology Teacher 77, No. 5 (2015): 333-337. Doi:10.1525/abt.2015.77.5.3.
• Cutlip, Kimbra. “The Scopes Trial Redefined Science Journalism and Shaped it to What it is Today.” Smithsonian Magazine online. Last modified July 10, 2015.
• Featured Image: University of Tennessee Libraries. “Darrow addressing jury.” Accessed March 2021.
• Office of the Historian. “Biographies of the Secretaries of the State: William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925).” Office of the Historian, United States of America Department of the State. Accessed February 2021.
• Public Broadcasting Service. “John Scopes.” American Experience, PBS. Accessed February 2021. Retrieved from https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/monkeytrial-john-scopes/.
• “Tennessee Evolution Statutes.” University of Missouri – Kansas City. Accessed February 2021.

Rachel Olivo

Rachel is a junior at Ramapo College of New Jersey taking Discovering Digital History in the Spring of 2021. She is studying History and Education and is looking forward to becoming a teacher after graduating.