There is little to nothing known about Mae Capone save for her parents, birthday, and the ways in which she suffered from the actions and decisions made by her husband, Al “Scarface” Capone. The marriage of Mr. and Mrs. Capone had an unusual start for their time. The couple’s first and only child, Albert Francis “Sonny” Capone, was born out of wedlock three week before the couple’s wedding in December 1918. Over the course of their union, Mr. Capone transferred syphilis onto Mrs. Capone, resulting in her later infertility. He continually cheated on her throughout their marriage until he went away to prison

Despite her husband’s status as a high profile public figure, Mae was able to remain out the public eye if she so desired; but at times she would come to her husband’s defense in the press. Her relationship with the public was very in and out, black and white. At this point in 1934, Mae’s husband Al Capone, has been in prison for close to three years of his eleven year sentence.

This declassified document from her husband’s FBI file reels reveals that while Mae Capone remained out the public eye, private eyes were watching her.

Transcription

Dear Sir:

Under date of May 28, 1934, you wrote to me the effect that you you had received confidential information that Mrs. Alphonse Capone, Sr. [Mae Capone (1897-1986)], wife of Al Capone, had established a residence in Reno, Nevada, with a view of divorcing her husband. You asked that when an agent was nest at Reno, that such inquiries as can be discreetly and diplomatically made, should be made to determine whether there was any foundation to the story.

On July 17, 1934, Special Agent J.F. O’Connell of this office, while at Reno, Nevada, interviewed Postmaster W.E. Kinnikin, who stated that he heard nothing of the matter, and had not heard that Mrs. Alphonse Capone Sr., was receiving mail at Reno. If Mrs. Capone is, or has been at Reno for the purpose referred to, it is quite probable that she would be living under an assumed name, with her identity known only to her attorney, while if she had instituted a suit for divorce she would, of necessity, file complaint under her right name, and as soon as filed, the newspapers at Reno would learn it and publish it, as is their practise. It is a daily routine matter for representatives of newspapers at Reno to learn the identities of the persons filing suits for divorce.

If the Division wishes this matter pursued further at Reno, I suggest that the Division, through its Jacksonville or Chicago Division offices, in which territory Mrs. Alphonse Capone Sr. is said to have resided in the past, endeavor to determine her last known address, and then make such inquiry as is possible for the purpose of determining if she has been absent from that place, and if so where. 

Either one or both of these offices might also learn the name and address of the Attorney who has represented her interests in the past, and through some contact with the office of the attorney, determine the accuracy or inaccuracy of the information related to any contemplated divorce on her part. 

Very Truly Yours,

John A. Dowd, Special Agent in Charge

Significance

Information was given to the FBI claiming Mrs. Capone had moved to Reno, Nevada for the purpose of seeking a divorce from Mr. Capone. If she was, the scandal surrounding it would be equivalent to a circus. A divorce would end their marriage with the same shame that started with it. What’s puzzling is why would Mrs. Capone seeking a divorce peak the interest of the FBI? Mr. Capone was already imprisoned, so the fact that she could possibly testify against him seems insignificant at this point. It’s possible the FBI’s interest in Mae Capone resulted from her hot and cold relationship with the press.

When Mr. Al “Scarface” Capone was released from prison, he had the advocacy of his wife, Mae, to thank. She did not divorce him, she did the opposite. She cared for him in his deteriorated state until he passed away in 1947. However, this document ignites further pause for thought about the mysterious Mrs. Al “Scarface” Capone.

Bibliography

“Al (Alphonse) Capone.” Federal Bureau of Investigation – Freedom of Information Privacy Act, Part 9c. Accessed May 4, 2023. https://webharvest.gov/peth04/20041015123315/http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/capone.htm.

Michelle Steidle

Michelle Steidle is a History Major at Ramapo College, graduating with the Class of 2023. She enjoys historical research, long walks on the beach, and a good joke.

The University of Houston has a Digital History site that covers “The First Americans” to “The 21st Century.” Each time period has sub sections containing an overview and related documents. There are also sections that cover people, events, music, and film of that time period. Despite appearing a bit dated the website contains good information and can be used as a teaching resource or a resource for research in general.

Content

The types of primary sources on this website are images and documents. Secondary sources provided by the website are textbook overviews, biographies and information on entertainment of the time such as music and film. The sources are identified, and links are also provided for some sources such as music from the 1920s. The subject material covered on this website about the 1920s is based around the sources. There is a section “for teachers”, links to more information and quizzes.

Creators

The Digital History website was created through the University of Houston by a professor and their students. While there are surely many creators to credit, the website is suffering a server error, prohibiting access to the portion of the website where credit is given to them.

Search Methods

Locating information on this website is significantly easy. The time periods are sectioned off on the left side of the website, and the subcategories of those time periods are sectioned off on top of the textbox. The website’s format is clearly organized making it easy to follow. One could find the sources their research required on this website without difficulties.

Trustworthiness

The latest website update seemed to be in 2021, which is fairly recent. Despite its recent update the site looks somewhat outdated. However, due to the fact that the website is a University Digital History Project, it’s rated highly in trustworthiness.

Usefulness for 1920s Research

Overall, this website proves useful to research on the 1920s. Primary and secondary sources from the era are more or less in one place, thus one would not have to browse through multiple other sites for the same information. It’s all in one place. Additionally, not every website offers teaching materials. Education in addition to research can be navigated with ease through the resources provided. 

Michelle Steidle

Michelle Steidle is a History Major at Ramapo College, graduating with the Class of 2023. She enjoys historical research, long walks on the beach, and a good joke.

Historian John Higham, in his own words, aimed to provide “a semi autonomous scope for belief and emotions” with his book Strangers in the Land. This was a unique goal at the time, as many historians preferred remaining objective in the face of human emotional culture, and still do. Higham advocated for moral engagement within historical analysis. That is what made his work so groundbreaking. However, his thesis is not solely based on the scope of beliefs and emotions; he classified them as cultural factors in history worthy of consideration. The main thesis of the book surrounds the concept of nativism; a subgenre of nationalism, it is the fear of outsiders disrupting the dominant culture of the nation. Higham argued that nativism is rooted in ideas like anti-catholicism, anti-immigration, and racism. The way this concept spread or remained contained depended on economic, political, and cultural factors of the time. In essence, nativism has a “double it and pass it on” quality to it. 

“The resumption of immigration, the onset of depression, a wave of crime – each of these formed a part of a social pattern shaped by a return to peace, and all three had precedents in the circumstances of earlier peacetime eras in which nativism flourished.”

Higham, John. “Chapter Ten: The Tribal Twenties.” Essay. In Strangers in the Land, 268. Eighth Paperback Printing, 2008. New Brunswick , NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1955.

The monograph analyzed the effects of nativist conviction on the United States of America during years 1860-1925. Chapter ten of the book specifically hones in on the 1920s, the chapter is titled, “The Tribal Twenties.” In summary, Higham delineated the 1920s as an unstoppable culmination of nativist and nationalist beliefs. He did an excellent job highlighting the sheer hypocrisy and irony of those convicted in nativism. The interpretation of the 1920s within this chapter is largely applicable in today’s society. Overall Strangers in the Land has not yet been majorly challenged by other scholars. On the contrary it has been continuously built upon.

Significance

During the 1950s, the consensus perspective dominated historiography scholarship. The aim of consensus historiography was preserving traditional viewpoints and emphasizing unity through American values. This era witnessed the civil rights movement which combatted the narrative consensus historiography pushed. The social conflict of the 1950s provoked much thought amongst historians and other scholars. In Higham’s case specifically, bearing witness to the effects social conditions had on his present reality ignited reflection into the social conditions of the civil war through to the roaring twenties. He was not alone in his reflection, however his analysis is by far the most profound. He was a progressive historian within a field dominated by conservative historians. 

“The Klan’s snowballing advance in the early twenties paralleled the upthrust of racial nativism in public opinion generally. And within the order an insistence on preserving the superiority of the old Anglo-Saxon stock over foreigners of every description became pronounced.”

Higham, John. “Chapter Ten: The Tribal Twenties.” Essay. In Strangers in the Land, 291. Eighth Paperback Printing, 2008. New Brunswick , NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1955.

For instance, Higham analyzes the conception of the KKK or “the Klan” and the role they played in 1920s American society. He describes them as home grown terrorists without specifically using those terms. What’s considered profound about his take in this instance, in the opinion of this author, is how the rise of the Klan was more or less a direct result of post WWI social conditions. Higham illustrated this claim through other circumstances throughout chapter ten, but his focus on the KKK demonstrates the universal quality of his thesis. Higham’s dissection of the KKK in the 1920s served to illustrate another extreme way nativism re-emerged and immensely impacted society. It simultaneously provided context for 1950s America, in the thick of the civil rights movement. Conservative consensus historians of the 1950s aimed to unite the American public by enforcing a narrative which overlooked the dark, negative aspects of past American societies that Higham desired to highlight. It’s no coincidence that his analysis begins with the Civil War. 

“The secret of their success, however, lay essentially in the mood and circumstances of 1920. The whole complex of factors – depression, prohibition, and immigration; disillusion, isolationism, and reaction- that shunted 100 percent Americanism into the older nativistic channels contributed to the Klan’s growth.”

Higham, John. “Chapter Ten: The Tribal Twenties.” Essay. In Strangers in the Land, 289. Eighth Paperback Printing, 2008. New Brunswick , NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1955.

Bringing Higham’s thesis on nativism further, the points made in this monograph are food for thought as the “Alt-Right” is rising in the United States. Nativist, anti-immigration, racist sentiments are building up again within American society. In a way Higham predicted this, as mentioned earlier nativism has a “double it and pass it on” quality. It will go away for a while and re-emerge stronger than before. Readers seeking deeper understanding of the 1920s, or any era of American history from 1860 to the present, will get just that through the concepts presented within Strangers in the Land.

Bibliography

Bodnar, John. Review of Culture without Power: A Review of John Higham’s Strangers in the Land, by John Higham. Journal of American Ethnic History 10, no. 1/2 (1990): 81 http://www.jstor.org/stable/27500801.

Higham, John. “Chapter Ten: The Tribal Twenties.” Essay. In Strangers in the Land, 264–99. Eighth Paperback Printing, 2008. New Brunswick , NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1955.

Michelle Steidle

Michelle Steidle is a History Major at Ramapo College, graduating with the Class of 2023. She enjoys historical research, long walks on the beach, and a good joke.

Al Capone, also known as “Scarface”, has become a symbol of the 1920s. He was an active participant in Chicago’s mob scene as he ran speakeasies during Prohibition and committed tax fraud. Before gaining notoriety in Chicago, Capone lived in Brooklyn, New York. He was born there on January 17, 1899. His parents were Gabriele, a barber, and Teresa, a seamstress. They immigrated to the United States from the Naples area in Italy. In total the couple had eight children, some were born in Italy but others, like Al, were born in the United States. Two of Al’s brothers, Raffaele James and Salvatore followed him into the crime business. Ralph managed bottling companies, which earned him the nickname “Bottles.” He worked with Al until his arrest for tax evasion in 1932. Salvatore worked with Al until he died on April 1, 1924. Al’s other brother, James Vincenzo, did not join crime business. He took the opposite path becoming a prohibition agent in Nebraska. He changed his name to Richard Hart severing all connections to his criminal family.

While growing up in Brooklyn, Al Capone did exactly what one would expect a future mobster to do. When he was fourteen years old he hit his teacher in the face, for unknown reasons. This earned him expulsion from school. Following his expulsion Capone worked odd jobs at a candy store and then a bowling alley. Through working he gained business skills that he carried into his criminal career. While he often got involved in trouble, it was not all he did. Al Capone played semi-professional baseball with his brother Ralph from 1916-1918. At some point during this time, Al met Johnny Torrio of the James Street Gang. It was after this friendship formed that Al Capone’s career as a criminal began.

Mae Capone

Al Capone’s wife, Mae, was a stabilizing force in his life. Mae was born Mary Josephine Coughlin on April 11, 1897. Her parents were Irish Immigrants and she was from Brooklyn, NY as well. It’s unknown when Al and Mae met, but they got married in 1918. At the time of their marriage Al was under the age of 21, so his parents needed to sign their consent. Al and Mae’s only son, Albert Francis “Sonny” Capone, was born three weeks before their wedding.

Throughout their marriage, Mae was loyal to Al in all the ways a wife could be. She would often defend him from the press. Multitudes of accounts claimed the couple’s marriage a happy one. This is hard to believe as Al cheated on his wife frequently. Early in his criminal career he contracted syphilis, which he then passed on to Mae. This diagnosis possibly contributed to the miscarriages and stillbirths Mae suffered. At one point Mae became so fed up with Al’s infidelity that she had her hair done in the same style as his current mistress. She did this to embarrass him publicly, as he enjoyed picking out the hairdos of his lovers. This moment was one of the only times Mae appeared in the press, as she kept her life private.

Criminal Career

After he met Johnny Torrio Al jumped between small New York gangs. These were the “Junior Forty Thieves,” the “Bowery Boys,” and the “Brooklyn Rippers.” In time Al joined the “Five Points Gang”. The “Five Points Gang” was a larger, powerful gang that operated in lower Manhattan. The gang operated clubs before Prohibition laws passed into law. One night Al mocked a sex worker at one of these clubs. The sex worker’s brother repaid Al with a laceration across the left side of his face that left a scar. The aforementioned wound became the origin for his nickname, “Scarface.”

Torrio left New York for new opportunity in Chicago. After establishing the “Chicago Outfit” also known as the “South Side Gang” in Chicago he invited Al to join him there in 1919. Al Capone started his Chicago criminal career as a bouncer at a brothel. Prohibition laws passed in 1920 eliminated the Chicago gang’s main sources of income. The gang earned back the lost income, and gained some, through breaking those laws. They operated underground breweries and distilleries. The had the contraband alcohol smuggled throughout the country. Torrio was the boss of the Chicago gang until he suffered a grievous wound in 1925. Torrio promoted Al Capone to act as boss in his stead. This promotion placed twenty-six year old Capone at the head of all business ventures. He implemented violent tactics to improve revenue. These measures were not new to gang operations, but Al implemented them as the new standard. Over time Capone became vulnerable to arrest due to his new role and the actions he took in it. In 1927 he bought a home in Miami, this home served as a safe compound out of Chicago PD jurisdiction. After Capone purchased the home he would retreat there with his family or friends. Oftentimes he escaped there when he was in need of an alibi. In one instance Capone retreated to his Miami safe haven to void him as a suspect in the St. Valentine Day murders . Capone could not have commited the crime with his own hands; albeit the Chicago press and police department speculated that he called for the murders.

“Hell, it’s a business… All I do is supply a public demand. I do it in the best and least harmful way I can. I can’t change the conditions. I just meet them without backing up.”

Gomes, Mario. “The Real Al Capone Quotes.” The Real Al Capone quotes. Accessed April 29, 2023. https://www.myalcaponemuseum.com/id211.htm.

Trial and Arrest

Capone retreated to Miami for the first three months of 1929. In March a subpoena demanded he appear before a federal court in Chicago. Capone wished to avoid Chicago. He requested Dr. Kenneth Phillips submit an affidavit to Chicago’s courts. Dr. Phillips testified to the courts that Al was bedridden as a result of pneumonia. The affidavit disclosed that travel while Capone recovered could deteriorate his health further. The Chicago courts postponed Al Capone’s appearance to March 20, 1929. The FBI was reluctant to believe there was any truth to the sworn affidavit. They had already been compiling a file on Capone, due to his criminal activity in Chicago. So, they looked into the veracity of Dr. Phillip’s affidavit. Their suspicions proved valid. The FBI discovered Al went to the horse races and on vacation during the time he was on bed rest.

Capone was present for court on March 20th and proceedings lasted until the 27th. On the last day of the proceedings the court charged Al with contempt of court and arrested him. A $5,000 bond for his release. This was only the beginning of Capone’s serious legal troubles though. Police arrested him and his bodyguard the following May in Philadelphia, PA . The pair were in possession of deadly weapons. Philadelphia courts sentenced Capone to one year in prison. In March 1930 the prison liberated Capone two months early for good behavior. In February 1931 Chicago courts charged Capone with contempt of court. They sentenced Capone to six months in Cook County jail. For one reason or another did not serve the sentence immediately.

Post his February conviction, Al Capone was finally tried for tax evasion in October 1931. He entered a plea deal for a lighter sentence at the start of trial. Capone ended up forgoing the deal because the judge was under no obligation to uphold it. In the end, Chicago courts sentenced him to eleven years in prison in October 1931. The six months he owed for his earlier charge of contempt in court joined the eleven year sentence. Furthermore the courts required Capone pay a $50,000 fine, $7.692 in court costs, and $215,000 that he owed in back taxes.

Release from Prison and Death

Al Capone served seven years, six months and fifteen days in prison. Alcatraz prison released him on November 16, 1939 after paying all fines and back taxes. Capone spent his time after release in a Baltimore hospital for brain treatment. His health was declining due to his syphilis infection. Upon his release from the hospital, Mae took him to the Miami home he often escaped to. Al Capone never returned to Chicago. Mae cared for him there until he died in 1947 at 48 years old. She sold their Miami home soon after his passing, but remained in Florida until her death in 1986 at 89 years old.

Later Media Portrayal

Al Capone rose to celebrity status during his life despite his criminal career. He earned this societal status by dressing to the nines, and flaunting his accumulated wealth at any opportunity. A pinstripe suit remains the unofficial uniform of a 1920s gangster. The luxury the public perceived he lived in led to others glamourising life in his shoes. Some had no desire to live their lives that way, but found themselves awestruck in fear of him. The point is that no matter what people thought of Capone, the public thought of him.

In 1930, the novel Scarface by Armitage Trail released to the public. Trail drew inspiration from the real life Scarface, Al Capone. It followed a young “hoodlum” named Tony Guarino. Guarino got himself into so much trouble his boss ordered him to stay away from Chicago. As a result he volunteered his service in WWI. It was during his time serving in the war he received a wound to his face that was so bad his family didn’t recognize him. He was also pronounced dead due to a clerical mistake. He changed his name and became the boss of his own gang. In 1932 a movie adaptation of this novel released in theatres. The original “Scarface”, Al Capone, faced trial after trial during these releases. The criminal lifestyle had become a source for public entertainment. This was the beginning of the long history of Mafia media portrayal.

A few decades later in 1983, the Scarface film was redone, and it was a box office hit. Al Pacino starred as Scarface which launched at the height of a mafia movie renaissance. During the 1970s, mafia movies dominated popular culture. The first two Godfather films released in 1972 and 1974. These movies were not specifically based on Al Capone. Italian immigration and the activity of the mafia that developed in the United States during the early nineteenth century inspired the plot of the Godfather films. The remake of Scarface followed these films. Al Pacino starred in Godfather I before Scarface and he became the poster child for mafia media portrayal. The two characters Pacino played provided the public with insight into the different types of men that existed within the glamorized mafia world. Mafia movies also launched Robert De Niro’s career with Godfather II. In the 1990s Goodfellas directed by Martin Scorsese became another mafia classic. This all culminated with the launch of on HBO. All of this popular media would not be possible without the original Scarface, Al Capone, and the social status he rose to despite being a violent criminal. He was an iconic, mysterious figure during his time in the 1920s. The intrigue he commanded then has resulted in a whole entertainment genre that will continue to be enjoyed.

Bibliography

“Al (Alphone) Capone FBI Reels.” Federal Bureau of Investigation – Freedom of Information Privacy Act. Accessed April 30, 2023. https://webharvest.gov/peth04/20041015012040/http:/foia.fbi.gov/index.html.

“Al Capone.” FBI. FBI, May 18, 2016. https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/al-capone.

Balsamini, Dean. “Al Capone Played Semi-pro Baseball in Brooklyn before Turning to Crime.” New York Post. New York Post, May 17, 2020. https://nypost.com/2020/05/17/al-capone-played-semi-pro-baseball-before-turning-to-crime/.

Bowman, Lisa Marie. “Novel Review: Scarface by Armitage Trail.” Through the Shattered Lens, August 15, 2022. https://unobtainium13.com/2022/01/18/novel-review-scarface-by-armitage-trail/.

Denninger, Lindsay. “Why Mae Capone Is Still Such a Mystery.” Whatever Happened To Mae Capone After Al’s Death? Accessed April 30, 2023. https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2020/05/9774160/what-happened-to-mae-capone-al-wife.

“James Street Gang.” Infamous New York. Accessed April 30, 2023. https://infamousnewyork.com/tag/james-street-gang/.

Kobler, John. Capone: The Life and World of Al Capone. Capo, 1992.

“Mae Capone 1936.” AP. Accessed April 29, 2023. https://newsroom.ap.org/editorial-photos-videos/detail?itemid=4b44fc07ae0440f7a16d96c1f316c503&mediatype=photo.

“My Al Capone Museum.” My al capone museum. Accessed April 30, 2023. https://www.myalcaponemuseum.com/id117.htm.

National Archives. Accessed April 29, 2023. https://www.webharvest.gov/.

Michelle Steidle

Michelle Steidle is a History Major at Ramapo College, graduating with the Class of 2023. She enjoys historical research, long walks on the beach, and a good joke.

The Emergency Quota Act was part of a long winded effort by Congress to limit immigration into the United States during the early 1920s. This effort began in 1917 with a law requiring Immigrants pass a literacy exam (in a language of their choice) to enter and remain in the country. The President at the time, Woodrow Wilson, vetoed this legislation but Congress overrode him.

During WWI, long established empires, like the Austria-Hungary Empire and Ottoman Empire, were dismantled. Additionally, the Russian Revolution at the start of the war, along with the Armenian Genocide, added to the inescapable chaos taking over Europe at the time. Citizens of those places that had descended into “anarchy, bolshevism, and syndicalism” (in the words of Congressmen Paul B. Johnson of Mississippi) wished to immigrate to the United States. Many members of Congress, along with much of the public, worried that those systems of rule could be brought to the United States with Immigrants. Congress and the public also worried about how an influx of Immigrants would affect the workforce, the economy, and the overall culture of the United States. So in the aftermath of WWI and the start of the 1920s, Congress realized they would need stronger immigration legislation if they were to achieve their semi-isolationist goals. The Immigration Committee headed by Republican representative, Albert Johnson of Washington State, pitched a bill that would permit a number equal to 3% of the current US residents from any foreign country (recorded during a fiscal year) entrance the United States. It should be noted that this legislation did not include Asian countries listed in the Immigration Act of 1917.

Unlike those who came before him, President Warren G. Harding cooperated with Congress and hence, the Emergency Quota Act came to be. The “emergency” act was proposed by the Immigration Committee as a temporary measure that would actually limit immigration into the country. However, it’s now known that the act remained permanent as it was built upon and solidified in 1924.

Albert Johnson, Representative of Washington State

Albert Johnson was elected into the House of Representatives in 1912 for the Sixty-third Congress. Prior to his time as a state representative he worked as a journalist for many different newspapers. This line of work would have made him very familiar with public opinions of his time, making him a good candidate to represent them in Congress. According to his biography on the archival website for the House of Representatives, he served as a “captain in the Chemical Warfare Service” during WWI. Although, his most notable work was done as chairman of the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization. He served in this role from the Sixty-sixth Congress to the Seventy-first. During this fever of worry and craving for isolationism that ran rampant among Congress and the public, Johnson was able to avoid the tunnel vision on the matter that afflicted his fellow congressmen. 

“His tactics and comments show that he was aware of the contradictions and divisions surrounding the immigration debate. He was, unlike many restrictionists of the time, possessed of the will, vision and subtlety to attempt to marshal and sustain continued opposition to unrestricted immigration.”

Allerfeldt, Kristofer. “‘And We Got Here First’: Albert Johnson, National Origins and Self-Interest in the Immigration Debate of the 1920s.” Journal of Contemporary History 45, no. 1 (2010): 7–26. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40542903.

At the time, Johnson’s ability to see the whole issue and not just one side made him the ideal candidate for the attempt and achievement of a resolution to the “immigration issue”. The proposal and passing of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 was considered a step in the right direction, but the success was short lived. As someone who was aware of both sides, he knew that a complete halt to all immigration would be impossible to achieve in actuality. Which is why the Quota Act greatly reduced the number of Immigrants allowed into the United States, and did not completely halt all entry. He expressed in a press briefing that he aimed to limit immigration to “the close blood relatives of naturalized citizens.” His opponents in the Senate felt that even this exception would allow too many “undesirables” into the United States. Over the course of the next few years, Johnson would make many attempts to give each side what they wanted. It seems his efforts reached a “happy” conclusion for Congress with the Johnson-Reed Act of 1924. 

Bumps in the Road

While there was discourse following the passing of the Emergency Quota Act, Congress was mostly satisfied with their bill. The trouble came after the passing of the bill, when certain aspects still needed to be worked out. One of the first issues with the terms of the legislation was the matter of the month of June, 1921. According to the Congressional Record from June 20, 1921 there was an issue with ships that departed between the passing of the bill on May 19, 1921 to June 8, 1921 that were in the the process of transporting people to the United States. The issue was whether or not to count these people toward the newly established quotas for their countries of origin, in addition to whether or not they should be allowed entry into the country.

The image above describes House joint resolution 153 of the Sixty-seventh Congress of the United States. It was proposed by none other than aforementioned Representative Albert Johnson. Johnson’s resolution was very simple, and realistic: those the ships that sailed between the passing of the act on May 19th and June 8th and the ships that were already in the process of sailing to the United States should be admitted as part of a grace period. Johnson argued that the fifteen day grace period to “clear the seas” was not enough, as ships can sail slower than expected or communications about the legislation could not have reached departing ships in time. This seems like a reasonable conclusion considering the fact that these would be the last large arrival of immigrants for the foreseeable future due to the Quota Act. However, that was not the case. Despite Albert Johnson’s reasonable argument for admittance, his opponents felt differently. Specifically, Representative Paul B. Johnson of Mississippi. 

Representative Paul B. Johnson made the argument that proper communications had been made to foreign countries and ship companies following the enactment of the Emergency Quota Act on May 19, 1921. He expressed that the resolution was for the ship owners more than the people on them. In summary, if the United States was to reject the incoming Immigrants, the ship owners would be obligated to transport them all back to the port of origin free of charge. He claims that the ship owners and the governments of the original port countries were informed of the new legislature but decided to send the people anyway. 

“During the hearings before the Immigration Committee it was developed that the owners of the ships carried the immigrants who now seek entrance into the United States in excess of the quota allowed under the immigration bill, and the immigrants on the said ships were informed of the passage of the law and knew of the conditions that prevailed in this country regarding immigration.”

Congress.gov. “Congressional Record.” March 1, 2023. https://www.congress.gov/bound-congressional-record/1921/06/20/61/house-section/article/2760-2790.

After much debate on the matter, from the ethics and morals to the legitimacy of the legislature they passed, the resolution passed with 189 “Yeas” and 71 “Nays”. Interestingly though, 169 members of the House of Representative did not vote on this resolution. 

Public Perception

It’s easy to gather based on the remarks of the representatives in Congress that there was a decent majority of citizens who were pleased with the passing of the Emergency Quota Act. However, there were also those who harbored criticisms of the bill. These criticisms and other reactions to the bill can be seen in the following political cartoons.

The original paper this cartoon was published in and its author are unknown, but the message is clear to see. However, whether this is a criticism or observation is unclear. Although, it feels like a criticism due to the way the bill is being depicted with Uncle Sam making all the European Immigrants go through a funnel to enter the country. All in all, the political cartoons of the time give much insight to the way the Emergency Quota Act was perceived by the public. 

Significance

The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 marked the beginning of the end for major waves of Eastern and Southern European immigration to the United States. It also seems to be the origin for many of the arguments used today against South American and Mexican immigrants. The close look done at the legislation one hundred years later illuminates how the ideals and notions Americans have surrounding immigration have not changed, but shifted from group to group. However, this event is truly a reflection of its time. After WWI the world was adjusting to the many upheavals that were arising all over Europe. Since its founding the American government had always strived to achieve some form of isolationism to protect its democratic-republic system, as George Washington had recommended. So, when long standing Empires, revolutions,genocide, and World War began their reaction was to protect themselves, and America, first. Which resulted in a decade of a healthy economy and much growth throughout other areas of American living. Which is why the budding stifling of immigration in the 1920s, while unfortunate, does not complicate the way the 1920s are remembered today.

Bibliography

Allerfeldt, Kristofer. “‘And We Got Here First’: Albert Johnson, National Origins and Self-Interest in the Immigration Debate of the 1920s.” Journal of Contemporary History 45, no. 1 (2010): 7–26. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40542903.

Bureau, US Census. “Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1922.” Census.gov, December 16, 2021. https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1923/compendia/statab/45ed.html.

“Closing the Door on Immigration (U.S. National Park Service).” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, July 18, 2017. https://www.nps.gov/articles/closing-the-door-on-immigration.htm. 

Congress.gov. “Congressional Record.” March 1, 2023. https://www.congress.gov/bound-congressional-record/1921/06/20/61/house-section/article/2760-2790.

History, Art & Archives, U.S. House of Representatives, “JOHNSON, Albert,” https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/J/JOHNSON,-Albert-(J000114)/ (March 01, 2023)

McSeveney, Sam. “Immigrants, the Literacy Test, and Quotas: Selected American History College Textbooks’ Coverage of the Congressional Restriction of European Immigration, 1917-1929.” The History Teacher 21, no. 1 (1987): 41–51. https://doi.org/10.2307/492801.

Higham, J. Strangers in the Land. Cambridge, MASS: Athenseum Press, 1963.

Michelle Steidle

Michelle Steidle is a History Major at Ramapo College, graduating with the Class of 2023. She enjoys historical research, long walks on the beach, and a good joke.

The first commercial radio broadcast announced the results of the 1920 Presidential election and aired on November 2, 1920 from Pittsburgh, PA. At the time of the broadcast 8ZZ was the station’s call sign, KDKA served as an alternate call sign for the station. KDKA was the first commercially licensed radio station. It aired from Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, a private company that developed radio technology.

When the United States entered WWI the government entered a contract with the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. The government sought improvement in radio technology for wartime purposes. At this time the government instructed civilian radio stations to pause. Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing became the only company given permission to develop and operate radio stations during the war as per their government contract.

War-time experiments conducted by Westinghouse radio technicians revolved around vacuum tubes that allowed audio communication. John Ambrose Fleming originally invented vacuum tubes in 1904 as an alternative to spark gap transmitters. Those were only capable of communicating morse code, which was limiting to general audiences. Once Fleming conceived vacuum tubes capable of audio transmission, morse code fell out of common use.

Origins of the Broadcast

The origins of the first commercial radio broadcast can be traced to the home garage of Frank Conrad. He was the leading engineer at Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. Prior to WWI he experimented with radio through station 8KX in his garage. When the government paused civilian radio stations, 8KX was among them. When the pause was lifted after the conclusion of WWI Conrad improved 8KX with the knowledge he gained from the wartime developments and operations at Westinghouse. On October 17, 1919 Conrad began broadcasting entertaining material from his 8KX garage station. He became widely renowned by radio enthusiasts of the area for this station; it was unconnected to his work for Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. 

Less than a year later in September 1920, Conrad’s personal experiments collided with his work for Westinghouse. On September 23, 1920 an ad placed in The Pittsburgh Press by a local department store announced “at home” radio receivers were available for purchase at ten dollars. On September 29, 1920, a notice published by The Pittsburgh Press informed readers of an “air concert” picked up by the radio receivers sold earlier that week. The concert of note was one of Conrad’s broadcasted from 8KX.

When Westinghouse’s contract with the government was nullified at the conclusion of WWI other companies and their radio stations, such as main competitor Radio Corp. of America formed by General Electric Company of Schenectady, New York, regained permission to resume operations. Westinghouse desired to establish the company as the main provider of radio communications nationally and internationally. Vice President Harry P. Davis saw an opportunity for company growth through the success of Conrad’s 8KX. Davis proposed that Westinghouse attach “at home” radio receivers to their products. He facilitated the development of regular radio programs out of Westinghouse as incentive for customers to purchase the receivers. Davis held a meeting with the “radio cabinet” of Westinghouse after he launched this project. At this meeting Davis requested an operating radio station by November for the purpose of broadcasting the election results to the public. 

KDKA

Westinghouse radio station, KDKA, was originally conceived in an effort to avoid business expenses through private radiotelegraph connections between different sister facilities of the East Pittsburgh location, Springfield, Massachusetts, Newark, New Jersey, and Cleveland, Ohio. Post Harry Davis’s request for a functioning station, a Limited Commercial Station license was issued to Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company on October 27, 1920. The serial number for the license was #174 and the identifying letters assigned were KDKA, thus the station was established.

This uncommon call sign emerged from unique circumstances. Starting in 1912, standard procedure was that stations east of Mississippi river received call signs that began with “W”. Westinghouse’s station license was awarded during a period of time where call signs from the “K” block, formerly assigned to ship stations, were redistributed to land stations. When standard procedure resumed, the licensing agency permitted KDKA to keep the call sign it was originally designated. Prior to the first commercial broadcast of the 1920 Presidential election, the station was given temporary authorization for operation as 8ZZ.

The Broadcast

Preparation for the election broadcast began with construction of an antenna and shack-like structure on the roof of Westinghouse’s East Pittsburgh facility. The antenna was made up of six wires ninety feet long and placed twenty feet apart. This structure was two hundred and ten feet off the ground. Frank Conrad and Donald G. Little constructed a one hundred watt vacuum-tube transmitter in addition to the massive antenna structure. 

Conrad planned to broadcast the election results from his own station 8KX with the American Radio Relay League. The league was a non profit organization made up of amateur radio enthusiasts. Westinghouse required Conrad’s efforts for a successful operation, and his original plan became the back-up. Thus on the day of the broadcast, November 2, 1920, Conrad stationed himself at his home garage with 8KX on standby in case transmitters failed at Westinghouse. The transmitters held up and the broadcast was successful, no alternative station necessary. The voice of Leo Rosenberg from Westinghouse’s publicity department was heard by all with “at home” radio receivers.

Radius of November 2, 1920 Broadcast

Significance

KDKA remains on the air to this day.

The successful broadcast of the election results made it so other events could air on the radio. On August 5, 1921 a baseball game aired on the radio for the first time. On October 8, 1921 the radio broadcasted a football game for the first time. After some time on May 4, 1925 President Coolidge’s inauguration aired to the public. Later that year on November 28, 1925 Barn Dance in Nashville, Tennessee aired. This radio broadcast evolved into “Grand Ole Opry,” the longest running radio broadcast in US history. That is just within five years of the initial broadcast. Communication and connection marginally improved on a global scale as a result of this breakthrough in radio technology. 

Popular “Pop” culture as we know it today originated in the 1920s because of the way radio allowed people to connect. Someone in California could experience Boston Red Soxs baseball games without leaving their home. Jazz enthusiasts in New York could experience country music from Nashville and vice versa. People connected through shared opinions and experiences brought to them by radio, thus fan-bases were born. A new type of relationship forged between civilians and public figures. One could argue influencers of today have radio to thank for their ability to connect with their audiences.

The Public gained a new source of entertainment, but also a new source of information in general. Information spread across the country, and across the world in a way it previously could not. The list of all events radio informed the public post-conception is endless. Families gathering around their radios turned into families gathering around their televisions. Now, radios are installed in cars and available on smartphones. Many aspects of life enjoyed today find their origins in the first commercial radio broadcast on November 2, 1920. 

KDKA remains on the air to this day. It can be listened to on stations 100.1 FM and 1020 AM.

Bibliography

“Amateur Radio Stations: 8KX Pittsburgh”, QST Magazine, September 1920, pages 32-34.

Bucher, E. E., General J. G. Harbord, David Sarnoff, Dr. F. B. Jewett, E. P. Edwards, Judge Stephen B. Davis, H. P. Davis, et al. The Radio Industry: The Story of Its Development. Chicago, Illinois: A.W. Shaw Company, 1928.

“File : KDKA – First Licence – October 27, 1920.Pdf – Wikimedia.” Accessed May 3, 2023. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:KDKA_-_first_licence_-_October_27,_1920.pdf. 

“History of Commercial Radio.” Federal Communications Commission. Accessed May 3, 2023. https://www.fcc.gov/media/radio/history-of-commercial-radio#:~:text=November%202%2C%201920,2%2C%201920.

O’Neal, James E. “Constructing the First ‘Real’ Radio Station.” Radio World, October 8, 2020. https://www.radioworld.com/columns-and-views/roots-of-radio/constructing-the-first-real-radio-station. 

“Video: Celebrating 100 Years of KDKA Radio.” audacy.com, November 2, 2020. https://www.audacy.com/kdkaradio/news/local/video-celebrating-100-years-of-kdka-radio. 

Urban, C. E., “The Radio Amateur”, Pittsburgh Gazette Times, September 26, 1920, Fifth section, page 10. Urban, C.E., “Wireless Telephone Here”, Pittsburgh Gazette Times, October 26, 1919, Sixth section, page 13.

Michelle Steidle

Michelle Steidle is a History Major at Ramapo College, graduating with the Class of 2023. She enjoys historical research, long walks on the beach, and a good joke.

On October 18, 1923 my grandmother, my Mema – Francesca, was born in a small village in Sicily. She was seventy-five when I was born, and would tell my sister and I about how her family moved to America to escape the rising fascism in Italy. My great-grandfather, Carmello, was a stonemason and the story goes that he sailed to America alone at first, that way he could find work and a place for the whole family to live before the rest of them immigrated as well. It’s a story many of us have heard before from many other sources. The story would make images of boats sailing across the Atlantic and men sitting on skyscrapers during their lunch breaks clear in my mind. After that though, the image that remains in my mind is a baby photo of my Mema, pictured below.

She is at most five years old in the picture, which is jarring because that means it was taken no later than 1928. The 1920’s never felt that long ago to me because I had living proof that they were not sitting next to me at dinner each sunday. The decade of the 1920’s is where my Mom’s family finds its origins. My grandfather, Nick, was born on March 1, 1920 in Chicago, Illinois. His family had come to America prior to that in the early twentieth century it’s believed. That is why being in the year 2023 is a bit jarring for me, as it’s already been 100 years since one of my grandparents was born, and the next 100 year anniversary is slowly creeping upon us. However, it’s for that very reason that the 1920’s look different in my mind compared to what would come up in a 1920’s Google image search. 

When searching “the 1920s” on Google Images the pictures that showed in the first row were all of flappers in some way, shape, or form. There were also some photos demonstrating prohibition and women advocating for their right to vote, and two photos of cars. What’s interesting is the categories the photos are separated into: fashion, america, flapper, jazz, prohibition, art, etc. Although in the main search there are mostly flappers. It seems to be a poor representation of a time where many people were working hard to secure better futures for prosperity. There were those like my ancestors who immigrated to America from a different country, but there are no pictures representing that story when you search “the 1920s”. Another example of those who were represented poorly on the main search page would be the suffragettes, there is only one photo to remind searchers that women received the right to vote in August of 1920. While the 1920’s look different to everyone, to me they look like new beginnings and working class people. There are sure to be others who see it the same way, which is why it would be nice to see representation of each aspect on the main search page.

Michelle Steidle

Michelle Steidle is a History Major at Ramapo College, graduating with the Class of 2023. She enjoys historical research, long walks on the beach, and a good joke.

Upon the initial search to gather a scope of the decade through google images, I was disappointed to see the lack of diversity within the images the search yielded. Taking a second look at those image results I can now recognize that there is much more representation than I originally perceived. There are so many pictures of women, they are dancing, drinking, wearing short dresses and pants, they are voting! Many social advancements happened for women in the 1920s, and I wish I had dedicated more research to the phenomena. 

In fact, the decade is almost too encompassing that I cannot keep track of all the events and people that shaped the 1920s into the present, one hundred years later, as my classmates have contributed to my new wealthy knowledge of the decade. So, for the purpose of this reflection I’m going to hone in on my own research over the course of the semester. I had begun my research with a deep dive into immigration law, as that is what my original perception of the 1920s centered around. This course of research led me to a broadening of that viewpoint. I was aware of immigration restrictions, but I was really not aware of why they were passed and how they affected everyone at the time. I read excerpts from the congressional record and was intrigued to see the discourse senators had about immigration and the Emergency Quota Act. The 1920s was no longer just “when immigrants arrived in droves and began family foundations in America,” it was not that simple. The immigrants that were lucky enough to find themselves in the United States were forced to jump through hoop after hoop, prejudice after prejudice. Although, in the present they still do. The research conducted for that post gifted me a better understanding of the country’s current immigration situation, which was just as limited as my knowledge of the 1920s immigration situation prior to this. 

My research then took me to Chicago. I was excited to reach this point as I desired to better understand the city due to the roots my family had there. Naturally, to gain a better understanding of Chicago during the 1920s you must look into the man that ran it, Al Capone. I knew very little about him, other than the fact that his nickname was “Scarface.” I had never seen the 1983 film but I could understand when he was referenced in popular culture. Through my research I learned about the role prohibition played in the 1920s, many people still desired alcohol consumption despite the outlawing of it. Capone considered himself a “provider of a service,” but his methods were incredibly violent. The 1920s were an era filled with crime committed by gangs because it was much harder to connect back to the perpetrators. I found Capone’s life fascinating, and my research on his life ushered me into cultivating the next portion of my research, radio. 

It was the first commercial radio broadcast of 1920 that started the chain reaction of technological advancement that would result in the smartphones of today. Through my research I learned that only private companies had access to radio, but postwar capitalist efforts of the eclectic companies to become relevant led to radio access for the global public. That first broadcast opened the door for fan culture to grow around sports and music. Commercial radio’s integration into standard media consumption changed politics as we know it. Political candidates and presidents could broadcast to the public which made the two groups feel connected. The age of connection was ushered in at the moment. Without commercial radio I may not be writing this post on the internet, radio you read not just hear. 

Overall, the 1920s mean much more to me now that I have gained a better understanding of the people and events that shaped the decade. In fact, I find many parallels between the 1920s and the 2020s. I look forward to comparing the decades in later years.

Michelle Steidle

Michelle Steidle is a History Major at Ramapo College, graduating with the Class of 2023. She enjoys historical research, long walks on the beach, and a good joke.