After researching more specifically about different movements and policies that defined the 1920s, my understanding of the decade has grown greatly. My previous views we’re not necessarily wrong, but in diving deeper into specific events and individuals I can better comprehend what the 1920s contributed to American society. 

One thing I have a better understanding of is the lives of women during the decade and the development of the suffrage movement after the 19th amendment was ratified in 1920. My post, the Equal Rights Amendment explores how early feminist groups continued their activism in the hopes to pass a bill guaranteeing equality along sex. Learning more about the formation of the ERA in 1923 allowed me to see how activists experienced both successes and failures throughout the decade. While the 19th amendment was definitely something to celebrate, diving deeper into women’s rights made me better understand the work that continued on into the 20th century.

Another aspect of the 1920s I failed to consider was the massive restrictions placed on immigration from certain countries. It must be noted that the United States was an increasingly isolationist country during the decade, causing the majority of forign policy to remain centralized to Western Europe. The Immigration Act of 1924 was profound in starting what we know today as the Visa process, but during its passage the act was greatly restrictive, especially towards immigrants from Asia, Africa and Eastern Europe. The act itself is a reminder of the discrimination many faced while trying to enter the country, and how for some the jounrey to America was nothing like the pictures shown to the public.

At the end of all my research I would tell someone who wants to know more about the 1920s to look beyond the media, and glossy images that films use to create a certain idea about the decade. The truth is that there were lots of grassroots movements and profound individuals whose impact is still felt today. The 1920s was a decade of changing social, political, cultural and economic landscapes. Not every battle was victorious, but those who participated are still worth being remembered.

It is also important to consider how race, class and gender played into the individual and American experience during the 1920s. For many, the decade offered a rise in economic prosperity, whereas for immigrant families, women and people of color there was still much to fight against.

Citations

The Johnson-Reed Act of May 24, 1924: http://werehistory.org/the-johnson-reed-act-of-may-24-1924/

Why the Fight Over the Equal Rights Amendment Has Lasted Nearly a Century: https://www.history.com/news/equal-rights-amendment-fail-phyllis-schlafly

Lauren S

Senior History and American Studies student at Ramapo College of New Jersey enrolled in Discovering Digital History course taught by Dr. Hajo during Spring 2021.

In 1924 the United States passed the Johnson-Reed Immigration Act that drastically decreased the number of immigrants allowed into the U.S. through the implementation of a quota system. The Immigration Act established both the Visa process and was the beginning stricter border security protocols being introduced. The quota system disproportionately favored Western countries in Europe as countries such as the United Kingdom received higher quotas, whereas Southern and Eastern European countries received stricter quotas. The document “Letter Regarding the Immigration Act of 1924” was written by Portugeese-American Manuel S. Amaral in 1925 as a response to the quota set on immigrants from Portugal. The Immigration Act granted Portugal a total of 440 immigrants per fiscal year to be allowed to enter the United States. Authored on behalf of 200,000 Portugeese-American citizens living in California, Amaral requests the U.S. government amend the Immigration Act to allow more Portugeese to enter the country. The letter was sent to James J. Davis who served as the U.S. Secretary of Labor from 1921 to 1930. Under this role Davis was responsible for carrying out the actions established by the Immigration Act. 

I selected this document because of its significance to the Immigration Act of 1924 and showcases how American immigrants resisted the act throughout the 1920s. The letter offers insight into the Portugeese-American experience in California and presents arguments against the quota act through the lense of immigrant farmers out West.

Document

Document Text

Hon. James J. Davis,¹

Dept. of Labor,

Washington, D.C.

November 25, 1925.

Dear Sirs:

In the name of 200,000 Portugese people, citizens of California, we beg to enlist your endeavour to have amended the Immigration Act, which limits the admission into this country to 500 Portugese each year. Or if this means of solving the pressing problem be impracticable to find some other way to overcome the hardship which this limitation  places upon one or more of California’s leading industries.

We beg to remind you that approximately 90 per cent of the Portuguese population in California came from the Azores and Madeira Islands. They emigrated to California to make their homes, rear their families, live the lives of good citizens and to educate their children to follow in their footsteps. They are an industrious, frugal, home-loving people and comprise and one of the most useful and patriotic elements of our composite population. There is not a more law-abiding class of citizens in our State or one that is more uniformly contributive to substantial development of its basic industries and the spiritual, social and material advancement of the commonwealth.

In the great Valleys of the State, in the foothills and plains, the Portuguese people will be found successfully engaged in diversified agriculture, truck farming, dairying and horticulture. They have reclaimed the virgin land and developed it to that high state of productivity which contributes so largely to the wealth of the State and the Nation. They have clung to the soil, and constitute one of the greatest and most dependable factors in the conservation of the most important of all California industries- the farm.

Many of the largest dairies in the State are operated by the Portugese who are naturally adapted to that line of work, as experience proves. There are approximately 3,500 Portugese dairies in California and the labor involved is in large measure performed by the families  of the owners. In the face of existing labor conditions, it would be utterly impossible to replace these workers with other help. Americans of other racial extractions cannot be induced to labor in the various agricultural pursuits, especially in the arduous work of the dairy, despite the high wages prevailing. This is patent to anyone familiar with the situation in all lines of agricultural operation.

With the immigration quota as low as that now permitted to Portugal, our Portuguese farmers and dairymen find it impossible to overcome the losses and wastage of the necessary help to continue their business, from other available sources.

We appeal, therefore, to out California representatives in the Congress to use their best endeavors to relieve a condition that threatens thousands of out Portugese farmers- these industrious and constructive citizens from The Azores and Madeira Islands- and their families, with financial ruin and a loss annually to the State and Nation of millions of dollars. Whether this relief comes from the admittance of more willing and competent workers in this field from Portugal or through other means is immaterial so long as the essential objective is attained.

May we ask you, therefore, to give this vital problem to the best interests of the foremost industry of California the serious consideration that it deserves?

Respectfully yours,

Mr Manuel S. Amaral

Citations and Sources

Letter to James J. Davis, Department of Labor, from Portuguese Citizens of California Regarding the Immigration Act of 1924; 11/25/1925, Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, Record Group 85; National Archives Building, Washington, D.C. https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/letter-immigration-act-1924

The Immigration Act of 1924(brief overview): https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act

Lauren S

Senior History and American Studies student at Ramapo College of New Jersey enrolled in Discovering Digital History course taught by Dr. Hajo during Spring 2021.

The website Roots of Jazz is a page created by PBS that dives into the history of jazz music in the United States. The majority of the content from the website comes from a Ken Burns documentary that was broadcasted on PBS. The documentary series consists of 10 episodes over an hour long each that dives into different aspects of jazz music, artists and culture. In an “About” tag, PBS talks with the filmmakers about the context of the series, while another tab delves deeper into Burns own past as a historical filmmaker and his process when approaching the topic. In the tab “Music 101” there is a blog written by a jazz composer in which he explores the music itself at a more fundamental level in order to paint the larger picture of how revolutionary jazz was during the 1920s. 

Each tab breaks down more detailed aspects of jazz music and the jazz age. In the “Music 101” section there are even boxes to click on which give information about jazz music for those unfamiliar with melody, rhythm, harmony and the various instruments used. In the tab “Roots of Jazz,” there is an interactive digital map which highlights some prominent locations in New Orleans, Chicago, and New York City. Content throughout the map is cited as being from “The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz” published by Oxford University Press. The map includes both locations and people, and includes a lengthy description of how the spot on the map is essential to the jazz age. The map gives you the option to go in chronological order to truly trace how jazz originated in the South and over time grew and traveled up North where it exploded in Harlem during the 1920s. 

The tab “Classroom” brings users to a new page that is geared specifically to educators. The page includes videos and activities that relate to jazz and the 1920s. The majority of the primary sources available are shown in the episodes of the documentary released by PBS. Primary documents are also available in the map feature as each location comes with components such as a photograph, direct quote or address to research further. At the bottom of the site there is a tab to explore related films to learn more about specific aspects of the 1920s, the Harlem Renaissance or influential movements of the 20th century.

The website is trustworthy due to its affiliation with PBS and a renowned documentary filmmaker. However, there are few actual citations that point towards scholarly research on the blog. For those who have the time to go through each episode and use the features to accompany them it might be more useful, but without actually watching the films it is unclear where some information is coming from. 

Overall, Roots of Jazz functions as an easy to navigate website with a few dynamic features that make it more interesting. The website can be used as a solid starting point for anyone researching topics related to the 1920s, the jazz age or the Harlem Renaissance. The map feature offers great insight into specific people and places that can aid in research and generate ideas about the cultural influences of jazz, while the music information page offers research potential for those looking to uncover more about the technology of the music itself. The website might not offer a perfectly sound list of sources or provide a primary source archive of sorts, but the content that is available is enough to generate curiosity and propel researchers down new and more developed paths.

Lauren S

Senior History and American Studies student at Ramapo College of New Jersey enrolled in Discovering Digital History course taught by Dr. Hajo during Spring 2021.

The 1920s is a decade in which an enormous amount of historians have contributed to the ongoing discussions surrounding the time period. While some praise the decade as a time of great accomplishment, progress and prosperity following World War I, others view the 1920s with criticism. As a historian, the 1920s can be analyzed through a lens of social, political, cultural and even religious perspectives; all leading to a clearer picture of what the so-called “roaring twenties” was actually like for all kinds of people.

In 2012 American historian of ethnicity and immigration in the United States, Marni Davis, wrote the book Jews and Booze: Becoming American in the Age of Prohibition. In her book Davis looks at how Jewish Americans engaged with Prohibition in the 1920s. She breaks down how the Jewish religious exemption worked in favor of immigrants as they became sources of a newly formed underground economy. Despite mass immigration and the industrial revolution that brought different ethnicities into urban centers like New York City, ethnic and religious minorities continued to face discrimination and alienation from white Americans in the 1920s. Jews in particular faced hurdles due to their religion, making it increasingly more difficult to fully assimilate into American society. In her work, Davis is able to capture the Jewish-American experience during the 1920s and paint a picture of what it was like for a religious group to travel upwards in social rank due to a legal loophole provided by their religion. 

The idea of “becoming American” is not new in terms of the historiography of the 1920s, yet Davis is able to bring a novel perspective by connecting Jewish-Americans to prohibition and how the two actually worked together to provide a bath for assimilation. Although prohibition was not enforced specifically against Jews, Davis’s work showcases the ingenuity of Jewish immigrants during a dry period in American history. Davis pulls sources from historians of the 1920s, immigration and the anti-alcohol movement. In doing so, Jews and Booze offers a dynamic take on one of the paths taken by an immigrant group during this time to assimilate into the greater American society.

During the 21st century many historians began to analyze how immigration and women fit into the puzzle of the 1920s. Books such as At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Exclusion Era, 1882 – 1943 by Erika Lee and journal articles like “Nationalism, Immigration Control, and the Ethnoracial Remapping of America in the 1920s” written by Mae M. Ngai began to look at how different ethnic groups were experiencing American society during the decade. In doing so, historians and readers can better understand how Americanization occurred in the beginning of the 20th century, and what attributes or stereotypes associated with certain ethnicities stem from that group’s process of assimilation.

Jews and Booze: Becoming American in the Age of Prohibition provides readers with a comprehensive exploration of the prohibition era with an emphasis on how politics and practices impacted Jewish-Americans and the Jewish community. Historian Marni Davis is able to highlight how Jews during the 1920s utilized the anti-alcohol movement to their advantage, securing their ledge in the climb towards acceptance in American society. 

Lauren S

Senior History and American Studies student at Ramapo College of New Jersey enrolled in Discovering Digital History course taught by Dr. Hajo during Spring 2021.

The battle over equality of the sexes is one that has permeated the 20th century. The 1920s were a turbulent and successful decade for women’s rights, signaling a dramatic shift in female politics, social status and what the future of feminism might look like. During this period women were embracing the freedoms and independence of post-war America, and as a result began to question the social, cultural and political boundaries they faced based on their gender.

Famously passed in 1920, the 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote for the first time in American history. After decades of protests and legal obstacles, suffrage was finally realized throughout the country. However, the fight for equal rights didn’t stop there. Despite the 19th Amendment being ratified, there continued to be countless gender based desriminations related to a woman’s work, finances, personal life and body. 

The second decade of the 20th century saw women getting involved in politics and policy like never before in American history. Women were able to meet, organize and plan movements that would improve their lives and remove them from second-citizen status. 

During the 1920s the National Women’s Party, which had originally been founded on the basis of suffrage, adopted a new goal. These post-suffrage feminists , including one of the NWP’s founders Alice Paul, believed that true equality could only be achieved through absolute legal protection. In December of 1923 the Equal Rights Amendment was introduced to congress for the first time. 

The document presented to congress in 1923 fared some changes to the original bill drafted by activist Alice Paul and lawyer Crystal Eastman. Titled the “Lucretia Mott Amendment,” the document stated that “men and women shall have equal rights throughout the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction.” If the amendment were to be passed it would open the doors to women’s rights issues. The broad nature of the document as well could guarantee victory as it related to gender based discrinimation in the future. 

A Brief History of Suffrage

One of the most defining events of the Suffrage Movement occurred in 1848, where a group of abolitionists organized for the first time in Seneca Falls, New York at would be remembered as the infamous Seneca Falls Convention.

It was at there that activist created the Declaration of Sentiments, which stated that “all men and women were created equal,” despite what the founding fathers may have written in the constitution. By 1890 the National American Women Suffrage Association was formed. After over a decade of protest and activism across the country, the 19th Amendment was ratified by congress on August 18th, 1920.

Alice Paul (1885-1977)

Alice Paul was a prominent player in the fight for Suffrage, as well as a pioneer of the Equal Rights Amendment. Born in Mount Laurel, New Jersey, Paul spent the majority of her life surrounded by the belief that women were equal to men as both her parents greatly encouraged gender equality. In 1916 Paul co-founded the National Women’s party with activist Lucy Burns to organize on the basis of securing women the right to vote. After securing victory in regards to voting rights, Paul directed her efforts towards the Equal Rights Amendment.

Crystal Eastman (1881-1928)

Eastman co-founded the American Civil Liberties Union in 1920 and was a prominent leader in women’s suffrage throughout the 1920s. Eastman participated in and helped run multiple social movements during her life including suffrage, internationalism, socialism and pacifism. After the ratification of the 19th Amendment Eastman foresaw that the right to vote would not guarantee women protection and equal liberties under the law. Eastman believed that women rights groups needed to begin working towards equal rights rather than just voting rights.

Eastman and Paul shared similar goals as they related to what the future of the women’s movement should look like. While the majority of suffragettes saw the 19th Amendment as a victory, Eastman knew that it was just the beginning of a longer and bigger fight for equality.

 “The principle of the Equal Rights Amendment is supremely important. The very passion with which it is opposed, suggests that it is vital.”

On Women and Revolution(Crystal Eastman)

The Joint Resolution (1923)

Direct in nature, those who wrote and presented the ERA demanded immediate action against gender based discrimination. High off the tail of the 19th Amendment, Paul and other former suffragettes saw passing the ERA as the next logical step.

In order for the resolution to reach congress, the NWP used activists Susan B. Anthony’s nephew, Daniel Anthony Jr. to introduce the document. The Joint Resolution as seen below proposes a 20th amendment to end discrimination on the basis of sex. The document was received in congress December 13th, 1923.

Reactions to the E.R.A

After its release it’s fair to say that the ERA was not popular in congress, nor amongst the general public. Many still believed that women belonged in the home, and should remain dependent on men. Traditionalists fought against the ERA in an effort to ensure the stability of gender roles. On the other hand, members of the feminist movement argued against the amendment becasue they felt the NWP was failing to concider both the racial and class lines that divided the party.

During this time working class and immigrant women had directed their attention towards child labor laws and safety conditions in facroties. It would be even more difficult to raise these issues if former suffragettes began to demand an Equal Rights Amendment. Labor activists in particular feared that the protections they had won for female workers would be jeopardized if the ERA was passed. These opposite opinions caused divided within the NWP, causing many to leave due to the direction the party was headed.

Something else the ERA failed to consider was that despite the 19th Amendment, women of color were still unable to vote due to racial discrimination. By focussing all their efforts on the Equal Rights Amendment, the NWP failed to consider the legal discrimination based on race that still occurred in the United States.

The ERA in the 1920s was a failed endeavor. Despite the efforts made by Paul and other activists, lack of support for the amendment stunted it’s progress. Although instances of resurgence would occur in future decades, it wouldn’t be until the 1960s and 1970s that the ERA would enter the minds of a new generation of feminists.

Second Wave Feminism and the E.R.A

The various social and political turmoils of the 1960s and 1970s caused the Equal Rights Amendment to re-enter the public sphere. Piggybacking off of the Civil Rights Movement and Second Wave Feminism, the ERA made its way to politicians reacting to the current social changes throughout the country.

The amendment was passed by congress in 1972 and sent out for ratification at the state level. This process, although slower, has seen success over the decades since its administration.

There are currently 38 states that have passed the ERA, and of the states that have not there continue to be a push from modern feminists to reconsider the bill each year. The most recent state to approve the bill is Virginia, who ratified the ERA in January 2020.

The E.R.A, 1920s and Feminism

When looking back at the women’s rights movement of the 20th century, the Equal Rights Amendment upon its release in 1923 resembles more of a short-lived blip in the larger scale of successful achievements made by suffragettes and feminists. One of the most defining legislations of the 1920s was the 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote. Although women had been involved in politics for centuries, this shifted the political sphere towards women legally for the first time in American history.

The “New Woman” of the 1920s was someone who was independent, free and embodied radical ideas about modern femininity. The ERA in this regard signaled not just a shift in political power, but in social and economic as well. To ignore the ERA as a founding document of both the 1920s women’s movement and second wave feminism is to bypass the first goal set by the National Women’s Party after achieving suffrage. Ending sex based discrimination was a radical belief during this decade, yet activists like Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman continued to push forward the bill despite constant rejection.

The failure of the ERA on the heels of the 19th Amendment is a reminder of the content hurdles women during the 1920s faced. Few success were granted towards feminist causes, leaving progress to be a slow and painful journey. Throughout American history the ERA adapted and changed to fit a 21st century mindset, but the original ideas fortified in 1923 remain protected by time.

Sources

H.J. Res. 75, Proposing an Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, 12/13/1923 https://catalog.archives.gov/id/7452156 

Here’s What to Know About the History of the ERA: https://time.com/5657997/equal-rights-amendment-history/

Kyvig, David E. “Historical Misunderstandings and the Defeat of the Equal Rights Amendment.” The Public Historian 18, no. 1 (1996).

American Civil Liberties Union: Crystal Eastman https://www.aclu.org/issues/free-speech/crystal-eastman-aclus-underappreciated-founding-mother

National Women’s History Museum: Alice Paul https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/alice-paul

Smithsonian: History of the Equal Rights Amendment https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/equal-rights-amendment-96-years-old-and-still-not-part-constitution-heres-why-180973548/

The Fight For Women’s Suffrage https://www.history.com/topics/womens-history/the-fight-for-womens-suffrage

States That Have Not Ratified The ERA https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/31/us/equal-rights-amendment-illinois-states-trnd/index.html

Crystal Eastman. On Women and Revolution. Edited by Blanche Wiesen Cook. New York: Oxford University Press. 1978. 

Lauren S

Senior History and American Studies student at Ramapo College of New Jersey enrolled in Discovering Digital History course taught by Dr. Hajo during Spring 2021.

Charlie Chaplin was a popular actor, comedian and filmmaker during the 20th century. His comedic genius was recognized worldwide as by the 1920s Chaplin had become an incredible success both in the United States and abroad. Chaplin’s films often commented on the insanity of every day life and he brought attention to the various class struggles many faced during the decade. Today, Chaplin is considered one of the most influential figures in the film industry.

Early Life

Charles Spencer Chaplin was born in London, England, on April 16th, 1889. Both of Chaplin’s parents were prominent stage actors in the U.K, introducing Chaplin to stage art at the young age of five. During his childhood Chaplin and his brother Sydney faced the loss of their mother and father, forcing the two kids into entering an orphanage in London. Chaplin had always had a difficult relationship with his father and therefore was drawn to his mother’s caring and composed manner. Yet when his mother fell ill after his fathers death, Chaplin was plagued with guilt and feelings of isolation. 

It is not surprising that Chaplin’s troubled childhood resulted in an increased desire to express himself on stage. Chaplin has been cited describing comedy as an art which “prevents one from being overwhelmed and driven to the point of insanity by the seriousness of life.” 

Due to his exposure to the stage and inheriting his parents admiration for performance art, Chaplin joined a youth company in England called the Eight Lancashire Lads where he performed as a tap dancer. In 1908 Chaplin joined the Fred Karno Repertoire Company which prompted his move to the United States in 1910. 

Coming to America

Chaplin toured with the Karno Company for a few years before eventually receiving a motion picture contract in November of 1913 where he would agree to appear in Canadian-American director Mack Sennett’s Keystone comedy films. In the United States Chaplin gained massive popularity through his Keystone performances and it was while creating films for Sennett that Chaplin developed his iconic style and character the Tramp, which would propel him to much greater success in the coming years. 

The character of The Little Tramp that was created through his work in the U.S. was a man who dressed in a haggard suit, carrying a cane and often wearing a top hat. The Tramp was clumsy and awkward in these situations, making him endearing and relatable. Chaplin is considered an expert at creating comedy in difficult or brief situations. Especially during a period of silent film, Chaplin relied on physical comedy and facial expressions to find the humor within scenes. 

After a year at Keystone Chaplin left the company to pursue a contract with Essanay Film Manufacturing in 1915 where he would receive an increase in pay of around $900, around $20,000 by 2021 standards. However, by 1916 Chaplin had signed to Mutual Film Corporation for an even greater salary. Chaplin had made a name for himself in the American film industry as one of the most sought after comedic actors of the beginning of the 20th century.

Upon completion of his contract with Mutual Films, Chaplin had begun ruminating on the idea of starting his own production company. The United States involvement in World War I studented his project slightly, as in 1918 entered into an agreement with First National Exhibitors’ Circuit. The organization encouraged Chaplin to travel around the U.S. to sell war bonds and generate public support for the war after his film production had completed. Chaplin’s emergence and understanding of American society and its population would allow him to create films in the following decade that would capture both the industrial landscape of the country and the experiences of working class immigrants. 

Independence in Film

Chaplin was eager to begin construction of his new studio located in Hollywood, California. After over two decades working in the film industry he wished to gain the freedom to create his own projects. In 1919 Chaplin, along with other prominent figures in the industry such as Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks and D.W. Griffith created the United Artists Cooperation. The majority of Chaplin’s films throughout the 1920s would be made through United Artists.

Notable Works of the 1920s

Chaplin’s first prominent work of the decade was his film The Kid, which was released in 1921. The silent film showcased his popular character the Tramp as a man who rescues a baby that had been abandoned by an unwed mother and raises him for a number of years. The film had its premiere at New York City’s Carnegie Hall and received immense support from critics who praised Chaplin for his direction and comedic capabilities. The film itself was one of the first in his career where Chaplin began to address the issue of poverty and class dynamics in society. The film highlights the realities unmarried women who must bear children alone face, along with questions about what it means to “properly” raise a child within a certain standard of living. 

In 1923 Chaplin released A Woman in Paris, a film which signaled a shift in Chaplin’s previous endeavors. The film itself was a romantic drama, and Chaplin himself played a very small role amidst the two main actors. A Woman in Paris showcased a more serious side of Chaplin and proved his abilities as a capable filmmaker. 

Despite all his notable work during the 1920s, Chaplin’s 1925 film The Gold Rush, offered a nuanced perspective on Western expansion and American poverty during a period of advertised affluence. Although many of Chaplin’s films offer some social commentary, The Gold Rush sees Chaplin’s Tramp character seeking gold in the wild American plains, resorting to poverty and starvation as a result of his idealized quest for wealth. A famous scene from the film depicts Chaplin eating his own rubber shoe for a meal as a comedic take on the realities of food insecurity in the United States. 

The work released by Chaplin during the 1920s was often reflective of many of the social and economic issues that were present amongst lower and middle class Americans. While Chaplin’s films were a manner with which the public could escape reality and be entertained, the messages explored through his character the Tramp highlighted poverty, injustice and urban decay. 

In 1928 Chaplin’s The Circus was released after months of turbulent filming conditions. The film was rated highly by critics and even earned Chaplin his first Academy Award. The actors worked alongside live animals, performed their own stunts aimed to create the environment of a circus on set. Along with acting in the film, Chaplin worked behind the scenes to produce the music score for the film as song choice was especially important in silent movies during this time. Chaplin chose music popular during the 1920s to play against his work in the hopes that it would allow the audience to better understand the characters emotions and actions. 

Significance During The 1920s

Charlie Chaplin was an integral figure during the 1920s through his films, stage presence, impact on the film industry and commentary on various social issues. During the 1920s Chaplin started his own production company and released some of his most memorable works such as The Kid, A Woman in Paris, The Gold Rush and The Circus. Although the 1920s is often remembered as an affluent time in American history, Chaplin’s films are a reminder of the kinds of conditions working class and immigrant families faced. Audiences were able to be entertained in theaters, while also being exposed to poverty out West or the difficult life of a child on the streets. 

Chaplin set a new standard in the 1920s for what comedy and film were capable of. His films challenged conventional Hollywood narratives and introduced a new era of filmmaking.

Timeline of Chaplin’s Life Throughout The 1920s

https://www.sutori.com/story/charlie-chaplin–NBwXvUjfBqEzFqTcDgZRJ5S5/embed

Citations:

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/charlie-chaplin-born

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charlie-Chaplin

https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Kid-film-1921

https://www.charliechaplin.com/en/articles/21-Overview-of-His-Life

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pickford-charlie-chaplin-1889-1977/

Korte, Barbara. “New World Poor through an Old World Lens: Charlie Chaplin’s Engagement with Poverty.” Amerikastudien / American Studies 55, no. 1 (2010): 123-41.https://www.jstor.org/stable/41158484.

Kuriyama, Constance Brown. “Chaplin’s Impure Comedy: The Art of Survival.” Film Quarterly 45, no. 3 (1992): 26-38.https://www.jstor.org/stable/1213221.

Vance, Jeffrey. “”The Circus”: A Chaplin Masterpiece.” Film History 8, no. 2 (1996): 186-208. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3815334.

Lauren S

Senior History and American Studies student at Ramapo College of New Jersey enrolled in Discovering Digital History course taught by Dr. Hajo during Spring 2021.

Following the end of World War I, The United States had adopted an isolationist mindset in regards to international affairs. This meant that the U.S. government would aim to strengthen its borders and focus more on domestic matters than getting involved in the businesses of Europe. While fears of Communism in the East were spreading across the country, immigration became a major issue for Americans. The Johnson-Reed Immigration Act was a response to the increased hostility towards immigrants and is a document which placed numerical restrictions on immigration from certain countries along with establishing what we know today as the Visa process in order to legally reside in the country. 

Before the Act

Prior to the Immigration Act being passed by Congress, it is important to understand how the United States was experiencing immigration and what attitudes towards immigrants were. Throughout the late 19th century and early 20th century the U.S. experienced a wave of immigration, largely in cities where unskilled labor work was readily available. In 1917 Congress passed one of its first restrictive laws on immigration that included a literacy test to be performed before entering the country, it increased taxes for new immigrants and gave more power to border officials on who should and should not enter the United States. The 1917 act also excluded all immigrants from anyone born in Asia, except Japan and the Philippines.

Despite the U.S. government establishing new barriers to limit immigration numbers, the 1917 act was not enough to prevent new immigrants from entering the country. It was during the 1920s that the idea of implementing quotas was brought up as a method in which immigration could be hindered. Republican Senator William P. Dillingham introduced action of setting a three percent rule on all forign born citizens of the United States. This would mean that passed on the percentages taken from the previous census, only a specific number of Visas would be granted for each country. Dillingham’s policy was established in 1922 and would continue to be praised until 1924 when the Johnson-Reed Act made some changes to the quota system that greatly shifted the narrative of immigration for the following decades.

The Immigration Act of 1924

So what changed in 1924? While the major point of using a quota system to limit immigration remained intact, there were some changes regarding exactly how many of each ethnicity was allowed into the U.S. Another change was that the previous measure from 1917 that excluded immigration from the far East and Asia would now include immigrants from Japan. 

As a result of increasing the calculations of Americans of British descent, the quotas for The United Kingdom and other countries in Western Europe increased, while Southern and Eastern European countries saw a decrease in available Visas. In the act there are dramatic jumps between countries such as Greece who have a 307 immigrant quota restriction and Germany who has an allowed quota of 25,957. These differences not only restricted the overall number of immigrants coming from those countries, but also who was most likely to be granted citizenship. In countries with severely restricted quotas such as Egypt(100), Armenia(100), Turkey(226) those of higher status and more educated would be more likely to gain one of the allotted hundred spots available. The disproportions of the quotas highlighted the racialized system of achieving citizenship in the U.S. Through the law nationality was able to remain designated for white Europeans who fit in with Western values. 

Japan

The Immigration Act of 1924 greatly angered the Japanese. This is because in 1907 the Japanese government had made an agreement with then president Theodore Roosevelt which included an increased quota for Japan given that the country makes an effort to restrict its own citizens from leaving. Yet the 1924 act neglected the agreement in favor of severe restrictions at a loss to Japan, causing the Japanese government to lose respect for American leadership. 

Public Perception

In general the American public was pretty split on the issue of Immigration during the 1920s. While many naturalized citizens supported the act as they believed their job opportunities had dwindled due to new immigrants, there were also those who felt that the principals on which America was founded upon were being thrown away. World War I had a great impact on identity politics and increased nationalism within the U.S., making something like the Johnson-Reed Act appear to be in favor of maintaining America’s national identity. Fear of the “other” coming from Communist Eastern Europe or Asia caused many to support a more restrictive policy on who was able to enter the country. 

There was this idea that immigrants from the South or East would have a more difficult time adjusting to American customs and way of life. There was also the belief that they would bring unfamiliar traditions or traits into American society. There was an increased stigma about anyone from countries with a predominantly Jewish or Muslim population and those with starkly different racialized features that stood out against the white majority. 

Mapping the Johnson-Reed Immigration Act

The 1920s

The Johnson-Reed Immigration Act of 1924 is a product of its decade and a result of the uncertainty many felt as they entered into the 20th century. While many Americans supported the act in favor of an isolationist mindset, the act is a reminder of how immigration policies are reflective of the society that makes them. Despite the artistic and technological revolutions of the 1920s, there was still incredible prejudice against immigrants from Asia, Eastern Europe, the Middle East and South America. The Immigration Act of 1924 is an example of how the United States government continued to look inward during the 1920s, instead of embracing the global landscape surrounding them. The restrictions placed during the decade have implications that continue to be felt in the 21st century as attitudes about Visa status and citizenship are continued to be debated along racial and ethnic lines.

Significance

The legacy of the Johnson-Reed Act can be seen in a heightened border security system and a more regulated Visa process. The ethnic makeup of the country is a direct result of immigration policies which allowed for increased quotas for Western European countries. It is also a foundation that sets a standard for who is deemed a greater asset to American society, and which group of people is undesired by the government. Although a bill like the Johnson-Reed Act could never be passed in 2021, discussions about physical walls and militarized border security have roots stemming from the immigration policy of the 1920s.

I chose this topic because I believe it is important to understand the lasting impact on historical policies and note how certain legal measures can still be felt today. As the world continues to grow more interconnected it is essential to reflect on how immigration policy impacts our views on certain cultures and ethnicities in order to move forward in favor of more inclusive measures that are not based on racial, political or xenophobic foundations.

Citations

Ngai, Mae M. “The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924.” The Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (1999): 67-92. Accessed April 19, 2021. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2567407 

Ngai, Mae M. “Nationalism, Immigration Control, and the Ethnoracial Remapping of America in the 1920S.” OAH Magazine of History 21, no. 3 (2007): 11-15. Accessed April 19, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25162123. 

Jaret, Charles. “Troubled by Newcomers: Anti-Immigrant Attitudes and Action during Two Eras of Mass Immigration to the United States.” Journal of American Ethnic History 18, no. 3 (1999): 9-39. Accessed April 19, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27502448. 

Milestones: 1921- 1936: https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act

Library of Congress: https://www.loc.gov/item/uscode1925-003008006/

President Calvin Coolidge signs into law the Immigration Act of 1924: https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/coolidge-signs-stringent-immigration-law

The 1924 Law That Slammed the Door on Immigrants and the Politicians Who Pushed it Back Open: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/1924-law-slammed-door-immigrants-and-politicians-who-pushed-it-back-open-180974910/

Closing the Door on Immigration: https://www.nps.gov/articles/closing-the-door-on-immigration.htm

Lauren S

Senior History and American Studies student at Ramapo College of New Jersey enrolled in Discovering Digital History course taught by Dr. Hajo during Spring 2021.

My general impression of the 1920s is influenced greatly by popular culture and the various entertainment and literature that was produced during the decade. My first college analysis of the different elements of the time was during the course Intro to American Studies taught by Professor Rice. In the course we looked at books such as The Great Gatsby to discuss issues of money, power and the American Dream. Popular themes that I associate with the 1920s are changes in gender norms, industrialization and mass entertainment. When imagining the women of the decade the image of the ‘flapper’ comes to mind; a free spirited woman who wore her hair short and often frequented night clubs and bars. Due to the 19th Amendment being ratified the first year of the decade, the 1920s brought forth a new era of the modern woman as more and more began to challenge previous notions of femininity. 

Rapidly growing industry is another theme I associate with the 1920s as the American economy experienced a boom during the decade, many urban centers became hubs of business and development. When I think of the 1920s I often solely imagine New York City and the factory buildings which rapidly produced home products, clothing and food. After incidents such as the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire occurred and books like The Jungle were published in the earthy 1900s, I associate the 1920s with individuals and movements aimed at improving workers conditions and public welfare. 

The images associated with the 1920s upon a simple Google search showcase many of the ideas of gender changes I believed to occur during the decade. One image shows two women enjoying a coffee break and dressed in expensive clothing. Both images of women I chose show a style of dress which exposes the leg and would be deemed scandalous just a decade earlier. In both images as well there is the general impression that these women are unmarried and experiencing the independence of early adulthood. 

The image of immigrants at a U.S checkpoint somewhere in the country somewhat complicates the glossy image I think of when I imagine the 1920s. The image shows a line of immigrants waiting to enter the country with the hope of starting over and acquiring the American Dream. As new populations streamed into cities many were not accepted and discriminated against due to their appearance, language, culture and religion. The men in the image appear solemn and like they have just traveled a long and tiring journey. As opposed to the images of women who are enjoying leisure time and a newfound freedom, the immigrants pictured give off an aura of the working class and I could imagine them trying to find a factory job as soon as they pass the checkpoint. The three images reflect not only gender differences but also a class hierarchy and how separate individuals experienced the 1920s. For wealthy white women the decade offered liberation, but for immigrants and people of ethnic descent the decade consisted of work, discrimination, poverty and the desire to rebuild their lives in an unfarmiliar place.

Lauren S

Senior History and American Studies student at Ramapo College of New Jersey enrolled in Discovering Digital History course taught by Dr. Hajo during Spring 2021.