During World War I, Rathenau served as an advisor to the German government on economic matters rather than militaristic ones. He was a strong advocate for the war effort, and he believed that Germany could win the war through economic and technological superiority. However, he also recognized that the war was taking a heavy toll on German society and economy, and he called for a negotiated peace settlement. After the war, Rathenau emerged as a leading figure in the Weimar Republic, the democratic government that was established in Germany in the aftermath of the war. He served as the minister of reconstruction from 1921 to 1922, and he played a key role in rebuilding Germany’s economy and infrastructure. He also worked to improve Germany’s relations with other countries, including the Soviet Union and the United States. In 1922, Rathenau played a key role in negotiating the Treaty of Rapallo between Germany and the Soviet Union. The treaty established diplomatic relations between the two countries and provided for economic cooperation and military collaboration. This was a significant achievement as Germany had been isolated from the international community after World War I and the treaty helped to improve its standing in the world.

Rathenau’s tenure as Minister of Reconstruction was marked by controversy and conflict. He faced opposition from both sides of the political spectrum, as he tried to implement reforms aimed at modernizing Germany’s economy. Some on the left accused him of being too conservative and beholden to the interests of big business, while some on the right accused him of being too liberal and sympathetic to socialist and communist ideas. Rathenau’s most controversial initiative was his plan to reorganize the German economy through the creation of a system of corporate boards. He believed that the boards would help to streamline the economy and promote cooperation between businesses, but his critics argued that the cartels would lead to the concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large corporations. Despite the hardships faced, Rathenau oversaw the development of Germany’s infrastructure, including the construction of roads, bridges, and public buildings. He also helped to expand Germany’s telecommunications network and oversaw the development of new industries, such as aviation and electronics.

Unfortunately, Rathenau’s life was cut short by an act of political violence. On June 24, 1922, he was assassinated by members of a right-wing extremist group called the Organisation Consul. The group was composed of former soldiers, aristocrats, and nationalists who were opposed to the Weimar Republic and the perceived influence of Jewish and socialist elements in German society. The assassination was carried out by two members of the Organisation Consul, Erwin Kern and Hermann Fischer, who shot Rathenau while he was traveling in an open car in Berlin.

Work Cited

Himmer, R. (1976). Rathenau, Russia, and Rapallo. Central European History, 9(2), 146–183. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4545767

Brecht, A. (1948). Walther Rathenau and the German People. The Journal of Politics, 10(1), 20–48. https://doi.org/10.2307/2125816 

Kollman, E. C. (1952). Walther Rathenau and German Foreign Policy: Thoughts and Actions. The Journal of Modern History, 24(2), 127–142. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1872561 

jbennis

Joe is a Sophomore at Ramapo and a Global Communications major enrolled in Discovering Digital History.

Foster’s article fits into the larger historiography of the 1920s in Ireland by contributing to ongoing debates about the causes and legacy of the Irish Civil War. He draws on previous scholarly works and primary sources to analyze how different interpretations of the conflict have evolved over time. Foster’s argument differs from some earlier accounts of the Civil War, which focused more on individual leaders or events rather than larger historical trends.

Compared to other books written in the same decade, Foster’s article stands out for its nuanced analysis of the multiple narratives and perspectives surrounding the Irish Civil War. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the ways in which historical events are shaped and interpreted by the political and cultural contexts in which they occur. “While he insists that his goal is not necessarily to debunk the popular legend of the ‘selfless national hero’, emphasis on Collins’s personal ambition, ruthlessness and appetite for power obviously entails a considerable amount of myth deflation.” (Foster,2006) Foster’s work provides valuable insights into the complex legacy of the Irish Civil War and its relevance to contemporary political and social issues.

Overall, Foster’s article offers readers interested in the 1920s in Ireland a valuable perspective on the legacy of the Irish Civil War, and how it has been interpreted and understood by different groups over time. It highlights the importance of critically examining historical narratives and questioning assumptions about the causes and consequences of past events.

jbennis

Joe is a Sophomore at Ramapo and a Global Communications major enrolled in Discovering Digital History.

While researching the Tulsa Race Massacre, I learned about other terrible hate crimes like the Rosewood Massacre in Florida. Like the Tulsa Massacre, the death toll remains highly disputed with the official count being 27, but some estimates being as high as 150. I had no idea about this incident, I only knew about the Tulsa Race Massacre, because of the crazy fact that American planes dropped bombs on America. Lynchings were also very common in this era as well as other notable events like the Harlem riots. In Ireland, the English government tried setting up a puppet government, and by successfully installing them, rekindled hostilities. The puppet Provisional Government enacted England’s will more or less with the illusion of autonomy. Infighting occurred among countrymen and it wasn’t limited to IRA against the Provisional Government, but there was infighting in the IRA as well. Across the English Channel, Germany was trying to rebuild their society, economy, and culture. War reparations bled out the German treasury after they had to shovel over 132 gold marks (around 33 Billion in current USD) France, those who were being paid the reparations desperately needed them. The four-year war was fought heavily inside of Frances’s border, crippling its economy, and agricultural and industrial productions. Manpower all over Europe was hampered so badly, plus the ongoing Avian flu, the generation of men and women who were alive in that era, was dubbed “The Lost Generation.”

It wasn’t all negative, there were advancements in technology and day-to-day life was improved. Affordable cars become more commonplace in America thanks to Ford. Washing machines, radios, and refrigerators also entered American households all in one decade. The quality of life was becoming more convenient as each year passed. As mentioned in Casey’s article about Delta, airlines became a new method of transportation. Consumerism graced the American market, which isn’t a shock given the era known as “The Roaring Twenties”;  it is definitely interesting to see how new amenities and commodities made people’s lives much easier.

In conclusion, I left this course with way more knowledge of the period than expected. I always was uninterested in 1920s history, but I feel as if that’s because the subject matters weren’t bought up in an entertaining manner. Given the general autonomy of the course and how much of the learning was independent, I was able to learn about subjects I didn’t imagine I would be able to cover.

jbennis

Joe is a Sophomore at Ramapo and a Global Communications major enrolled in Discovering Digital History.

The Tulsa Race Massacre or Tulsa Race Riot is a tragic event in American history that occurred on May 31, 1921, to June 1, 1921. The exact cause of the event is a topic of contention, but on May 30th of 1921 a black man named Dick Rowland entered an elevator, when he got out the city of Tulsa was changed. After events transpired, a massive riot broke out where a white mob razed the black neighborhoods of Tulsa. Businesses and residential buildings were brought to ashes in less than 48 hours and Federal Government officials had to take charge,

May 30th, 1921

On May 30th, a shoe shiner named Dick Rowland entered the Drexel Building, his intentions remain unknown but he did interact with the elevator operator.  Shortly after Rowland left the elevator rumors spread of Dick Rowland forcing himself upon the elevator operator Sarah Page. Since Sarah Page was white and Rowland was an African American, outrage sparked in Tulsa among the white citizens.  As more and more people were informed of the alleged incident, details were muddied and accusations become more heinous than the last. It is uncertain what happened between the two individuals in the elevator, but what was certain was that Dick Rowland’s life was in danger. 

May 31st, 1921 

The following day police took Dick Rowland into custody and questioned him on the alleged assault. While he was in police custody, rumors of a lynch mob forming to kill Dick Rowland spread through the city like wildfire, which accelerated tensions between the African American and white communities. An armed group of nearly 100 black men, descended on the courthouse to protect Rowland. Once reaching the courthouse the group was turned back by the sheriff who tried to reassure them that Rowland was safe in police custody. The group had little to no confidence in the sheriff, due to a man being lynched a year prior while being in police custody. The sheriff did fortify the courthouse, he set up six of his men on the roof armed with long guns, disabled the power to the elevator, and erected barricades. 

Upon seeing groups of armed black men in the streets, bigoted residents went home to retrieve their own personal firearms. Near the courthouse, an armory belonging to the US National Guard was stocked full of rifles, and an estimated 400 angry white citizens made a plan to arm themselves with them. Fearing an attack, the National Guard locked down the armory and threatened to open fire on anyone who came close to the building, this display of force made the rioters quickly reconsider. Over 2000 angry rioters were outside the courthouse and wanted to harm Rowland. Around 10 PM the white mob reconvened while armed at the courthouse,  that’s when chaos broke out leading to the deaths of 12 people. A white man tried disarming a black World War 1 veteran, during the physical struggle, the firearm went off. The single gunshot erupted into a volley of fire, as protestors protecting Rowland and rioters there to harm him began engaging with one another. By the end of the shootout, 10 white people and two black people were slain. The angry white mob, furious and anxious over what they viewed as a possible “Race War” quickly escalated the situation by committing arson and burning black-owned businesses. The black men that offered security to the sheriff had to retreat while underfire to Greenwood, a predominantly black neighborhood. While all this was going down, the National Guard was drawing up plans on how to subdue the rioters and a contingent of white citizens remained at the courthouse, threatening to kill Rowland. 

June 1st, 1921

As the night progressed into the morning, sporadic skirmishes were still occurring especially near the Frisco train line. The Frisco train line was a redlining boundary, where many blacks lived. Around 1 AM fires started to rage through downtown Greenwood, destroying businesses, while the Tulsa Fire Department did everything in its power to combat the flames, many lost their way of life. Even the white firefighters weren’t safe from the fury of the hateful mob, with firetrucks being forced to turn back at gunpoint, by those who started the fire. By sunlight, over a dozen black-owned businesses were lost. Around 5 AM a train whistle sounded and many of the white mob took this as a signal to launch an all-out assault on the Greenwood neighborhood. Although the african american community defended their homes with everything at their disposal, the firepower was too immense. By daybreak most of Greenwood was evacuated, some left by choice others were annexed out of their own neighborhoods. Even more shocking was that it wasn’t just gunfire, but aerial attacks too! There were local reports of multiple aircraft circling over Greenwood Ave, these planes were sources of small arms fire and even incendiary explosives. There were even unconfirmed reports of machine guns being fixed onto planes and firing down on the crowds. Government officials claimed that the planes were there for aerial reconnaissance of a possible “black uprising” and denied the use of force.

Around 9 AM the National Guard arrived in Tulsa and at 11 AM martial law was in effect. By noon most of the violence was ceased, but there were still pockets of violence. 

Casualties and Aftermath 

The number of people that perished during the Tulsa Race Massacre is unknown and highly debated. At first, estimates ranged from 20-150, but now it’s widely accepted amongst scholars that possibly over 300 people lost their lives in those horrifying 48 hours. The massacre received national coverage, but many facts remained hidden from public knowledge up until recently. There are reports of mass graves and in November 2022 they found an unmarked grave with over 20 bodies buried. This is an unspoken horrifying event that happened a little over 100 years ago, there is still much research to be done about the outlying effects this event had on not just Tulsa but neighboring communities as well. On the 100th anniversary of the massacre, President Joe Biden delivered a speech, talking about the racial injustice that happened and that still occurs in America to this day.

Work Cited

Hirsch, J. S. (2002). Riot and remembrance: The Tulsa race war and its legacy. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Tulsa Historical Society and Museum. (n.d.). 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre. Retrieved from https://www.tulsahistory.org/exhibit/1921-tulsa-race-massacre/

Oklahoma Tribune. (1921, June 1). Trouble Flares at Tulsa, Oklahoma. Newspapers.com

jbennis

Joe is a Sophomore at Ramapo and a Global Communications major enrolled in Discovering Digital History.

I believe that the website is trustworthy and able to be utilized as a resource. It not only as a resource but also acts as a mini database for the subject matter providing easy access to documents that may be hard to come by through various searches on trusted databases. There is a page with all the website curators and ways to contact them, I view this as a positive so you can research who these individuals are.

jbennis

Joe is a Sophomore at Ramapo and a Global Communications major enrolled in Discovering Digital History.

The Battle of Four Courts, also known as the Four Courts Incident, was a pivotal event in Irish history that occurred during the Irish Civil War. The conflict began in June 1922, when the Irish government, led by Michael Collins, attempted to suppress the activities of the anti-treaty forces, who opposed the Anglo-Irish Treaty that had established the Irish Free State. The battle took place in Dublin between June 28 and July 5, 1922, and destroyed the Four Courts, a significant historical and cultural site in Ireland.

The Four Courts was a complex of buildings that served as the seat of the Irish judiciary. It was a symbol of Irish legal and constitutional authority and had been occupied by the anti-treaty forces since April 1922. The government viewed the occupation as a direct challenge to its authority and decided to take action to regain control of the building. The Four Courts were garrisoned by over 100 men, all armed with small arms. In anticipation of the Provisional Government’s assault on the Anti-Treaty IRA, the IRA began to dig in, mining the surrounding area and barricading entrances. The Four Courts now resembled a fortress, rather than grand courthouses. Barbed wire was laid down to impede any attempt to attack, firing positions were manned by men with rifles, and a few Lewis machine guns were also amongst the Anti-Treaty IRA’s arsenal. 

On June 28, 1922, the Irish government launched an attack on the Four Courts. The attack was led by Irish Free State Army troops under the command of General Eoin O’Duffy. The Provisional Forces began their siege with a heavy bombardment of static weapons, which was overall ineffective. The anti-treaty forces, led by Cathal Brugha, responded with heavy resistance, and the battle quickly escalated into a full-scale conflict, there were other notable political leaders of the IRA on the ground such as Ernie O’Malley and Oscar Traynor. Despite their notable positions, they were foot soldiers like any other IRA member. The fighting lasted for several days, with both sides suffering heavy casualties. The anti-treaty forces were eventually defeated, and the Four Courts were heavily damaged by artillery fire. Although fighting lasted a few days and both sides lost men, the day-to-day average Dubliner was the one who truly suffered. On the first day, there are articles that mention that four civilians were confirmed killed by crossfire and an estimated 15 combatants slain in total.  

The Battle of Four Courts had significant repercussions for the Irish Civil War and Irish history more broadly. It marked a turning point in the conflict and led to the eventual defeat of the anti-treaty forces. The battle also had a lasting impact on Irish culture and identity. The destruction of the Four Courts, a symbol of Irish legal and constitutional authority, was seen by many as a tragic loss for Irish nationalism.

The Battle for the Block

During the Battle of Four Courts, in the neighboring area colloquially known as “the Block” fighting also raged on. Before the hostilities began, the IRA took up defensive positions in over 10 of the buildings along “the Block.” The garrisons were armed with small arms and provisions to withstand an assault or siege launched by the Provisional Government and or British Forces. The “Block” spanned over three streets, the most notable being O’Connell Street, these streets would become the epicenter of fighting after the Four Courts fell. The soldiers that were stationed in the Block were now facing the same situation that their comrades faced earlier at Four Courts. The Irish Republican Army was now outgunned and outmanned by the Provisional Government. The Provisional Government bombarded the neighborhood with 6 lbs guns, instilling panic amongst the Irish Republican Army’s ranks. The Provisional Government used three armored cars to assault the Block, and the Irish Republican Army had no heavy ordinance to combat that armored vehicles. That plus the artillery pieces shifted the advantage in the Provisional Government’s favor.

The battle also had a significant impact on the development of the Irish state. The government’s decision to use force against the Four Courts was controversial and divisive and led to a deepening of political divisions within the country. The aftermath of the battle saw the establishment of a more authoritarian regime in Ireland, which was marked by the suppression of political dissent and the use of state violence against perceived opponents. This can also attribute to the turbulent remainder of the century Ireland still had instore, with constant infighting between religious sects and ideologies.

In conclusion, the Battle of Four Courts was a significant event in Irish history that had far-reaching consequences for the development of the Irish state and Irish culture. The conflict marked a turning point in the Irish Civil War and led to the eventual defeat of the anti-treaty forces. The battle also had a lasting impact on Irish identity and nationalism and was a source of controversy and division within the country for many years to come.

Citations

Fewer, M. (2019). THE BATTLE OF THE FOUR COURTS, 28–30 JUNE 1922. History Ireland, 27(4), 44–47. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26853089

Foster, G. (2006). In the Shadow of the Split: Writing the Irish Civil War. Field Day Review, 2, 294–303. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30078650

RTE.ie History. (2022, June 15). The Battle of Dublin. RTE. https://www.rte.ie/history/battle-of-dublin/2022/0615/1305019-the-battle-of-dublin/

Pegum, M. (2016). The Battle of Mount Street Bridge, Easter Week, 1916. Dublin Historical Record, 69(2), 146–156. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44984377

jbennis

Joe is a Sophomore at Ramapo and a Global Communications major enrolled in Discovering Digital History.

The pictures of the 1920s when you search just that into Google lack a variety of pictures. Mostly depicting the Flapper lifestyle and there was one picture of the Klu Klux Klan in the ceremonial garbs. The reason I found this interesting, is because it highlights how racial inequality was an even bigger issue 100 years ago. The Klu Klux Klan tries to hide in plain sight nowadays, with fear of ostracization from the communities they belong to, but a century ago it was socially acceptable to be a part of a bigoted organization like that. I decided not to talk too much about flappers and the socially liberal movements that became more mainstream. I knew that my screen would be filled with women in fabulous dresses, smoking, and drinking which was considered unladylike in this era. Flappers and swing music dominated speakeasys’ (underground illegal bars.) I also chose this image of Hollywood, because in the 1920s cinema started to become a prominent feature in pop culture. One of the most famous movies filmed in color was the movie The Wizard of Oz which highlights the power that Hollywood held over the general population. Movies became another medium for entertainment, before the cinema, most people relied upon radio or newspaper to occupy themselves when they found they had downtime.

jbennis

Joe is a Sophomore at Ramapo and a Global Communications major enrolled in Discovering Digital History.