Introduction

The 1920s was a period defined by cultural excess and societal shifts in America. While many associate the decade with the glamour of jazz culture and flappers, a darker aspect of American life dominated the twenties. Fueled by the failures of Prohibition and an influx of organized crime, one of the most infamous events of the twenties was the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre. The massacre served as a violent representation of the nation’s influx of organized crime, corruption, and lawlessness.

February 14, 1929 remains a defining moment in the history of organized crime in America. The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre exposed many of the complexities of the Prohibition era. The mass killing not only changed how law enforcement viewed organized crime but also served as a reminder of the failure of the government. Specifically, the event demonstrated weakness in the government to enforce laws, particularly the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol.

The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre

On the morning of February 14, 1929, seven men were shot and killed in a garage at 2122 North Clark Street, Chicago. The victims were members of the North Side Irish gang, which was headed by George “Bugs” Moran, a notorious figure in Chicago’s organized crime scene. The victims were lined up against a wall and shot with Tommy guns, a common weapon used by gangsters during this period.¹

The shooters disguised themselves as uniformed policemen. They arrived at the garage in a stolen car and deceived Moran’s men into believing they were law enforcement officers. This disguise allowed them to get close to the gang members without raising suspicion. Once inside the garage, the men opened fire and killed all seven men.² The brutality of the massacre frightened Americans. The massacre represented a significant increase in the violent gang wars present in major American cities throughout the twentieth century.

Five of the victims were direct members of Moran’s North Side Gang: Moran’s second in command, Albert Kachellek, bookkeeper and business manager Adam Heyer, cleaning operator Albert Weinshank, gang enforcer Frank Gusenberg, and his brother Peter Gusenberg. Two affiliates of the gang were also murdered: Reinhardt H. Schwimmer and John Hay. All men were found dead at the scene except for Frank Gusenberg.³ Law enforcement transported Gusenberg to nearby St. Joseph’s Hospital where they questioned him about the attack. Gusenberg refused to provide any details on the shooters. This was a common practice of organized crime affiliates. Frank Gusenberg later died at St. Joseph’s Hospital from his wounds.  

The victims of the massacre were part of Moran’s North Side gang. The gang obtained immense power and wealth from the illegal bootlegging trade during the Prohibition era. They were also involved in a rivalry with the South Side Italian gang led by Al Capone. People widely suspected that Capone orchestrated the hit. Within days of the shooting, the court summoned Al Capone to testify before a grand jury on charges of Prohibition violations seemingly unrelated to the massacre. Capone’s gang was also heavily involved in bootlegging alcohol during this time period. The city would investigate numerous men affiliated with Capone’s South Side Gane, however, the lack of evidence left law enforcement clueless. Despite the growing suspicions, Capone and the South Side Gang were never officially charged or convicted of the hit. The rival gangs were in a constant struggle for control of Chicago’s illegal liquor trade. Thus, many people viewed the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre as an act of violence in relation to the gang war.

While the connections to Capone’s organization seemed obvious, no members of the South Side gang were ever convicted of the murders. Law enforcement questioned several suspects which included Capone and his men, but ultimately the case never closed. Despite never officially convicting anyone of the crime, law enforcement did identify connections to the massacre. On December 14, 1929 almost a year after the massacre, Michigan native Fredrick Dane, shot and killed an officer after a drunken car accident. The murder prompted the search of Dane’s Michigan home where law enforcements found a collection of Tommy guns which they believed to be the guns used in the massacre. Fredrick Dane had loose connections to Al Capone and his affiliates. Through the murder investigation, law enforcement linked Fredrick Dane to the massacre, however, they did not have enough evidence to convict him. Instead they sentenced Dane to life in prison for the murder of Officer Skelly. He served approximately 10 years before he died in 1940. Even with strong connections and links, law enforcement was unable to convict anyone of the crime. This lack of resolution after the massacre only added to the mass hysteria in Chicago and danger surrounding organized crime in the 1920s.

Prohibition’s Impact on Organized Crime

To understand the significance of the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre, it is important to understand the effects of the Prohibition laws. Ratified in 1919, the 18th Amendment to the US Constitution prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages. Groups such as the Women’s Christian Temperance Union and the Anti-Saloon League believed alcohol consumption was responsible for the social problems such as domestic violence, crime and poverty which caused them to contribute to the implementation of prohibition laws.⁴ Through a legal ban of the manufacture or sale of alcohol, many believed “prohibition would re-create a socially ordered community through the establishment of Protestant middle/class values.”⁵ Prohibition directly impacted the immigrant communities such as the Irish, Italians, and Germans as drinking was deeply ingrained in their culture and traditions. Law enforcement often targeted immigrants as speakeasies and bootlegging operations were frequently associated with their neighborhoods. Prohibition’s restrictive laws fueled resentment and widened cultural divides, reinforcing nativist prejudices. Figures such as Al Capone and George Moran rose to prominence through these large smuggling and distribution operations which further established organized crime within immigrant communities.

Despite its intended goals, Prohibition created a massive black market for alcohol and marked the rise of powerful organized crime groups who profited off the illegal liquor trade. Organized crime figures dominated the lucrative illegal trade which escalated the violent tensions in urban America; “there were fortunes to be made from the illicit trade, and prohibition agents were not up against individual lawbreakers, but faced well-organized and well-mannered gangs.”  Figures such as Al Capone and Bugs Moran profited immensely from this bootlegging.⁶ In addition to these figures, Prohibition led to the rise in underground clubs. Speakeasies became extremely popular across the country. However, this new industry caused even more competition and tension for control of this lucrative market which led to increased violence, corruption, and organized crime schemes.⁷

The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre was a direct consequence of this struggle for power. Moran’s North Side gang and Capone’s South Side gang fought for dominance in Chicago’s bootlegging operations for years prior to the hit. The gangs were constantly involved in violent situations. A prime example of this tension occurred on the Detroit River. The Detroit River was a major port for smuggling alcohol during Prohibition. One night while Capone and his men attempted to smuggle alcohol, the North Side Gang hijacked the boat and intercepted the alcohol.⁸ This event allegedly served as a catalyst for the massacre. This story further provides motive and supports the narrative that the massacre was an attempt by Capone’s men to eliminate their rivals and gain full control over the city’s illegal alcohol trade. If orchestrated by Capone, the massacre was not a random act of violence but instead a strategic move to gain power and profit further off the illegal trade market.

Law enforcement’s inability to convict anyone of the violent crime only further highlighted the lack of power the government presented to enforce Prohibition laws. Illegal trade, speakeasies, and violence thrived under Prohibition. The federal government established the Volstead Act to enforce the 18th Amendment. Law enforcement agencies were overwhelmed by the power, size, and violence of the illegal market. The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre continued to serve as a reminder that Prohibition did not lead to a decrease in crime but had instead fueled a violent and lawless culture in the 1920s.

Organized Crime and Government Corruption

The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre also further revealed the extent to which organized crime infiltrated American society and government. During the 1920s, corruption was rampant among police officers, politicians, judges, and other public officials because many received benefits from the respective gangs. Whether out of fear or financial pressures, many of these public officials were on the books of these criminal organizations and coerced to overlook some of the violent offenses.⁹ This caused substantial corruption as it was extremely difficult to distinguish between law enforcement and the criminals they were supposed to be policing. These factors created the environment of the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre and allowed organized crime to thrive.

Al Capone was infamous for his ability to bribe local officials and law enforcement officers to turn a blind eye to his criminal activities. As mentioned, Capone was one of the largest and wealthiest gangsters in America. Capone gained most of his wealth from the bootlegging trade and other illicit trades during Prohibition. The wealth he gained from Prohibition allowed him to gain significant influence over the political and legal systems in Chicago. He was protected not only by his men, but also a large network of corrupt individuals who turned a blind eye to his criminal activities and allowed him to continue to gain massive amounts of wealth and political power.¹⁰ Ultimately, through his connections, Al Capone remained one of the most powerful individuals in Chicago even beyond the 1920s.

The inability of the authorities to solve the crime and bring justice further undermined public confidence in the government’s ability to control organized crime. It also undermined the dangerous relationship between organized crime rings and corrupt officials. These connections continued to highlight the relationship between wealth and corruption. The more wealth a person amassed the more power they had to control the system, a common theme throughout the 1920s.

Broader Significance

The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre represented a turning point in the culture of the 1920s. It was not only a violent representation of the tensions between rival gangs, but also an intense representation of the growing corruption and lawlessness in the twenties. While many often remember the 1920s for its culture, jazz, and the rise of consumerism, the massacre demonstrates how it was also a period of intense social and political violence and unrest. The massacre sparked a deep sense of public distrust and disillusionment with the government and its ability to control society. As more Americans understood the negative impacts of Prohibition, particularly the violence it had provoked, there were mass movements that called for the repeal of the 18th Amendment.¹¹ These movements led to the eventual repeal of Prohibition with the ratification of the 21st Amendment in 1933, shortly after the 1920s.¹²

Conclusion
The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre was not just an isolated event, but part of a broader pattern of increasing gang violence present in the 1920s. It served as a defining moment of the 1920s that highlighted the challenges and contradictions of the decade. The massacre exposed the failures of Prohibition, the violent basis of organized crime competition, and the limits of law enforcement in an era of mass corruption. This massacre emphasized the tensions between rival gangs while fueling public outrage. It effectively demonstrated how prohibition failed as the movement promoted lawlessness and corruption rather than temperance. The massacre also marked a turning point in the way people viewed and trusted the government’s ability to control crime and the growing influence of organized crime. It remains a reminder of the unintended consequences of Prohibition such as escalated violence which led to the rise of organized crime in America. Ultimately, the massacre showcased the weaknesses of American political and legal systems which allowed for the eventual collapse of Prohibition, the only Amendment to ever be repealed.

Footnotes

1. “St. Valentine’s Day Massacre Wall.” The Mob Museum, February 10, 2023. https://themobmuseum.org/exhibits/massacre-wall/.  ︎
2. The Mob Museum ︎
3. The Mob Museum in Downtown Las Vegas. https://themobmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/trio.jpg.  ︎
4. Lynn Dumenil. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, ed. Eric Foner (New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 1995) 229. ︎
5. Lynn Dumenil. The Modern Temper. 228. ︎
6. Daniel McDonough. “Chicago Press Treatment of the Gangster, 1924-1931.” Illinois Historical Journal 82, no. 1 (1989): 17–32. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40192250. ︎
7. Jeffrey A. Miron, and Jeffrey Zwiebel. “Alcohol Consumption During Prohibition.” The American Economic Review 81, no. 2 (1991): 242–47. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2006862. ︎
8. Rumrunning and the Roaring Twenties: Prohibition on the Michigan-Ontario Waterway. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. August 1, 1995. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-8143-2583-4. ︎
9. Lynn Dumenil. The Modern Temper. 233. ︎
10. The Mob Museum. ︎
11. The Mob Museum. ︎
12. Lynn Dumenil. The Modern Temper. 234. ︎

Bibliography

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, ed. Eric Foner (New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 1995).

Fort Worth Star-Telegram. “Dane Linked in Chicago’s St. Valentine’s Day Massacre of 7.” December 17, 1929, 1.

McDonough, Daniel. “Chicago Press Treatment of the Gangster, 1924-1931.” Illinois Historical Journal 82, no. 1 (1989): 17–32. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40192250.

Miron, Jeffrey A., and Jeffrey Zwiebel. “Alcohol Consumption During Prohibition.” The American Economic Review 81, no. 2 (1991): 242–47. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2006862.

Rumrunning and the Roaring Twenties: Prohibition on the Michigan-Ontario Waterway. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. August 1, 1995. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-8143-2583-4.

“St. Valentine’s Day Massacre Wall.” The Mob Museum, February 10, 2023. https://themobmuseum.org/exhibits/massacre-wall/. 

The Mob Museum in downtown Las Vegas. https://themobmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/trio.jpg.

Erin Pryor

Erin Pryor is a History and Philosophy double major in the Honors Program, graduating with the Class of 2025. She is a writing consultant on campus at the Center for Reading and Writing. She is the president of Phi Alpha Theta history honors society and a member of Phi Alpha Delta pre-law fraternity.

In 1956 American historian Henry F. May wrote a historiographic article on the 1920s titled “Shifting Perspectives on the 1920s.” Throughout the essay, May challenges the dominant historical perspective that portrayed the twenties as merely a decade of cultural excess. May begins his essay with a discussion of the origin of these popular narratives. He highlights how the majority of the characterizations of the twenties did not come from historians, however from leaders of the twenties such as businessmen and writers.

Similarly, in 1966 American historian Burl Noggle wrote “The Twenties: A New Historiographical Frontier.” Burl Noggle also critiqued previous historians for their narrow interpretations of the decade. He begins his article with a discussion of the works of John Spencer Bassett and Fredrick Lewis Allen.³ Noggle describes how Allen’s interpretation of the twenties remained the dominant perspective nearly thirty years later. Allen published his book Only Yesterday, in 1931 immediately following the 1920s, however, the majority of the writing took place during the decade. Allen claimed to provide a historical account of the decade while living through it; this further proves May’s perspective that many historical interpretations were not in fact historical but simply primary sources of the decade which complicated the historical narrative of the twenties.⁴

Noggle goes on to cite May’s argument surrounding the historiography of the decade. Similar to May, Burl Noggle called for historians to seek beyond the popular narratives to explore the political, economic, and cultural complexities that drove the dynamics of the decade. Noggles believes historians could portray an accurate historical interpretation through an analysis of these intellectual complexities. 

Significance of Historiography

I agree with the historiographic interpretations of both May and Noggle. As history and society move further away from the 1920s the more scholars can interpret the effects of the decade and learn about how the political, economic, and cultural dynamics informed history. This is due to a multitude of reasons such as accessibility of sources, the internet, and overall the acceptance of less dominant narratives. It is essential to analyze historiographical interpretations over time because they often reflect the cultural conditions of their time period. It is extremely difficult, maybe even impossible to present a purely objective historical analysis. All historical interpretations reflect some narrative or bias to some degree. Historiography allows scholars to explore those narratives to better comprehend the attitudes of society at that time. For instance, prior to the Civil Rights Movement, there was not much scholarship surrounding the black experience during the early twentieth century.⁵ As social and cultural attitudes developed throughout the later twentieth century, the scholarship surrounding Black Americans increased and reflected that shift. 

Through their articles, both historians analyze the political landscape of the decades following the twenties to reveal the true effects of the movements from the 1920s. Henry F. May and Burl Noggle helped reframe the 1920s as more than a period of cultural excess and explored the economic and political tensions that drove the dynamics of the decade. They called for historians to analyze the decade as a critical turning point in society. The changing historiographic interpretations and scholarship also emphasize the cultural importance of hidden narratives from previously marginalized groups. Historiography reveals how historical interpretation is shaped by the values of each generation. It provides a unique opportunity to rewrite and reveal new narratives of the past. 

Footnotes

1. Henry May, “Shifting Perspectives on the 1920s
    Download Shifting Perspectives on the 1920sOpen this document with ReadSpeaker docReader,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review (Dec. 1956), 406. ︎
2. Henry May, “Shifting Perspectives on the 1920s
    Download Shifting Perspectives on the 1920sOpen this document with ReadSpeaker docReader,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review (Dec. 1956), 427. ︎
3. Burl Noggle, “The Twenties: A New Historiographical Frontier
    Download The Twenties: A New Historiographical FrontierOpen this document with ReadSpeaker docReader,” The Journal of American History (Sept. 1966), 299. ︎
4. Burl Noggle, “The Twenties: A New Historiographical Frontier
    Download The Twenties: A New Historiographical FrontierOpen this document with ReadSpeaker docReader,” The Journal of American History (Sept. 1966), 302. ︎
5. Banks, James A. “African American Scholarship and the Evolution of Multicultural Education.” The Journal of Negro Education 61, no. 3 (1992): 273–86. https://doi.org/10.2307/2295248, 2. ︎

Bibliography

Banks, James A. “African American Scholarship and the Evolution of Multicultural Education.” The Journal of Negro Education 61, no. 3 (1992): 273–86. https://doi.org/10.2307/2295248.

Burl Noggle, “The Twenties: A New Historiographical Frontier
 Download The Twenties: A New Historiographical FrontierOpen this document with ReadSpeaker docReader,” The Journal of American History (Sept. 1966), pp. 239-314.

“Burl Lee Noggle Famous Death.” Khoolood, October 29, 2014. https://www.khoolood.com/obituaries/5130/Burl-Lee-Noggle. 

“Henry F. May (1915–2012).” AHA. Accessed May 7, 2025. https://www.historians.org/perspectives-article/henry-f-may-1915-2012-december-2012/. 

Henry May, “Shifting Perspectives on the 1920s
 Download Shifting Perspectives on the 1920sOpen this document with ReadSpeaker docReader,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review (Dec. 1956), pp. 405-427.

Erin Pryor

Erin Pryor is a History and Philosophy double major in the Honors Program, graduating with the Class of 2025. She is a writing consultant on campus at the Center for Reading and Writing. She is the president of Phi Alpha Theta history honors society and a member of Phi Alpha Delta pre-law fraternity.

The 18th Amendment established Prohibition in 1920. Groups such as the Women’s Christian Temperance Union and the Anti-Saloon League believed alcohol consumption was responsible for the social problems such as domestic violence, crime and poverty which caused them to contribute to the implementation of prohibition laws.² Through a legal ban of the manufacture or sale of alcohol, many believed “prohibition would re-create a socially ordered community through the establishment of Protestant middle/class values.”³ Prohibition directly impacted the immigrant communities such as the Irish, Italians, and Germans as drinking was deeply ingrained in their culture and traditions. Native born Americans expected immigrants would “conform to the dominant English Protestant culture,” and prohibition attempted to legally enforce this conformity.⁴ Instead, the immigrant communities tended to oppose the prohibition which further exposed how the movement failed to unite the population through enforcement. Law enforcement often targeted immigrants as speakeasies and bootlegging operations were frequently associated with their neighborhoods. Prohibition’s restrictive laws fueled resentment and widened cultural divides, reinforcing nativist prejudices.⁵ Figures such as Al Capone and George Moran rose to prominence through these large smuggling and distribution operations which further established organized crime within immigrant communities.

While many viewed Prohibition as a progressive step towards social order and homogeneity, instead it marked the rise of powerful organized crime groups who profited off the illegal liquor trade. These gangs acquired immense wealth and political influence through bribery and coercion; “there were fortunes to be made from the illicit trade, and prohibition agents were not up against individual law breakers, but faced well-organized and well-mannered gangs.”⁶ Law enforcement and the government were easily persuaded and often turned a blind eye to organized crime activities potentially out of fear or financial pressure. These tactics led to the increase in violence and corruption in both the political and social spheres. These factors created the environment of the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre and allowed organized crime to thrive. 

 The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre was not just an isolated event, but part of a broader pattern of increasing gang violence present in the 1920s. The massacre exposed the violent basis of organized crime competition and the limits of law enforcement in an era of mass corruption. This Massacre emphasized the tensions between rival gangs while fueling public outrage. It effectively demonstrated how prohibition failed as the movement promoted lawlessness and corruption rather than temperance. Ultimately, the increase in organized crime and violence exposed the failures of Prohibition and contributed to its eventual repeal in 1933.

Citations

Footnotes

1. The Mob Museum in downtown Las vegas. Accessed April 2, 2025. https://themobmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/trio.jpg.  ︎
2. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, ed. Eric Foner (New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 1995), 229. ︎
3. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 228. ︎
4. Dumenil, The Modern Temper,204. ︎
5. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 230. ︎
6. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 233. ︎

Bibliography

“Divisions.” Labor & Capital, America in the 1920s, Primary Sources for Teachers, America in Class, National Humanities Center. Accessed April 2, 2025. https://americainclass.org/sources/becomingmodern/divisions/text6/text6.htm. 

McDonough, Daniel. “Chicago Press Treatment of the Gangster, 1924-1931.” Illinois Historical Journal 82, no. 1 (1989): 17–32. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40192250.

The Mob Museum in downtown Las vegas. Accessed April 2, 2025. https://themobmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/trio.jpg. 

Erin Pryor

Erin Pryor is a History and Philosophy double major in the Honors Program, graduating with the Class of 2025. She is a writing consultant on campus at the Center for Reading and Writing. She is the president of Phi Alpha Theta history honors society and a member of Phi Alpha Delta pre-law fraternity.

Specifically, much of The Weary Blues explored the impact of the progressive reforms such as Prohibtion had on the African American community and culture. Speakeasy and Jazz club culture associated with Harlem in the twenties boomed as a result of the Prohibition era.¹ These speakeasies and clubs were an opportunity for Black artists and musicians to publicly voice their work and beliefs at a time where African Americans were still heavily disenfranchised. Specific institutions, namely The Cotton Club, inspired a few of the poems in the collection such as the title poem “The Weary Blues.” 

Similar to the influence of “The New Woman” as expressed by Lynn Dumenil’s The Modern Temper, the Harlem Renaissance and figures such as Langston Hughes inspired concepts of self-expression, individualism, and advocacy within the Black community. “The New Woman,” as expressed by Dumenil challenged traditional gender roles through their pursuit of education, entering the workforce, and engaging in political activism.² Different political and activist groups such as the National Association of Colored Women continued to grow and assisted the Suffrage Movement. Despite continuous racial prejudices, Black women played a significant role in the Women’s Suffrage movement; “They also viewed it as a way of addressing racial issues such as Jim Crow, male disenfranchisement, and economic discrimination, goals that underlined their view that the elevation of black women was inseparable from racial progress.”³ Despite the positive intentions of these women, they were often met with racism and prejuidice which furthered the racial tension of the twenties. These hardships connected the African American community through shared experiences which brought both Black men and women together to pursue common agendas that addressed the racial injustices of America. Overall, these attitudes prompted the groundwork for celebratory and inclusive movements such as The Harlem Renaissance. The Harlem Renaissance provided these women a space to express their frustrations and passions through art, music, and other creative pursuits. 

Ultimately, the Harlem Renaissance was a response to racial tensions and prejudice aimed to foster and encourage Black identity, creativity, and intellectualism. Langston Hughes used his poetry collection to depict the daily lives and stuggles of African Americans in Harlem during the twenties. The movement would not have been possible without the numerous progressive reforms and ideologies that bloomed in the twenties that allowed for the expression of previously silenced voices. 

1. Drowne, Kathleen. “‘THEAH’S LIFE ANYWHERES THEAH’S BOOZE AND JAZZ’: Home to Harlem and Gingertown in the Context of National Prohibition.” Callaloo 34, no. 3 (2011): 2. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41243200. 
   
   ︎
2. Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. United States: Hill and Wang, 2024. 
   
   ︎
3. Dumenil. The Modern Temper. 126.
   
   ︎

Bibliography

Bowery, KGTsays:, Toni Bareasays:, TONE B HURTsays:, and Name. “The Tale of the Cotton Club: ‘The Aristocrat of Harlem.’” The Bowery Boys: New York City History, March 6, 2022. https://www.boweryboyshistory.com/2016/05/tale-cotton-club-aristocrat-harlem.html.

Drowne, Kathleen. “‘THEAH’S LIFE ANYWHERES THEAH’S BOOZE AND JAZZ’: Home to Harlem and Gingertown in the Context of National Prohibition.” Callaloo 34, no. 3 (2011): 2. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41243200. 

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. United States: Hill and Wang, 2024. 

https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsguZqIxr4c9_PTHHVDu3-DtVZdEI-XK2d-1OKLMbREKhj5MiFQ1y-anVrbjYmMrmns82wOCIKL4yX4Pnbj37H3e5H2hE4WmA1n5u0za7YihFMar23v3qWkkSM0jScAm6QYas1Ofl8kqw/s1600-h/74.

Erin Pryor

Erin Pryor is a History and Philosophy double major in the Honors Program, graduating with the Class of 2025. She is a writing consultant on campus at the Center for Reading and Writing. She is the president of Phi Alpha Theta history honors society and a member of Phi Alpha Delta pre-law fraternity.

The publication of Langston Hughes’ first poetry collection, The Weary Blues, in 1926 marked a defining moment in the Harlem Renaissance. In his poems, Langston Hughes displays the rhythms of jazz and the struggles of Black life in the 1920s through his unique and distinct voice that is both deeply personal and indicative of the era. The Weary Blues not only highlights Hughes’ innovative use of poetry and prose, but also expresses the social and cultural vibrancy of Harlem in the 1920s. 

Langston Hughes remains one of the most prominent voices of the 1920s through the Harlem Renaissance which celebrated Black culture, creativity, and intellectualism. Langston Hughes’ poetry Collection The Weary Blues is indicative of the period’s racial tensions and progressive efforts towards justice. Majority of the themes explored in The Weary Blues were expressions and reactions to the Black experience as well as the progressive reforms and racial tensions of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Hughes, along with other Harlem Renaissance artists, gave a new voice to the African American community through his insightful portrayal of African American daily life, struggles, and identity through poetry and music. Society remembers Hughes for his impactful contributions to the culture and creativity of the Harlem Renaissance.

The Harlem Renaissance

As the economy grew in the early twentieth century, thousands of African Americans relocated to industrial cities such as New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, and Detroit. These economic opportunities sparked a new hope and passion for the Black community to thrive in the growing world. Beyond increasing economic opportunity, new attitudes emerged in and revolving around the African American community in the post-reconstruction world. 

The African American community was viewed as more radical, assertive, and politically active in public spaces which coined the term of “The New Negro.”¹ This Great Migration and development of “The New Negro” paved the way for the Harlem Renaissance to thrive. The Harlem Renaissance was a creative cultural movement centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City.² Harlem was the perfect grounds for the artistic and cultural movement because the strong community among African Americans became a space for intellectuals to interact and share their creative pursuits. Prohibition changed the cultural landscape of Harlem and of underground nightlife and speakeasy culture. These speakeasies and clubs became lively venues for jazz performances and Black entertainers. Prohibition offered new spaces for artistic expression and cultural exchange.³

Characterized by a celebration of Black artists, musicians, and writers, the movement helped the African American community voice their experiences of social injustice and prejudice. Through poetry and other forms of artistic expression, Harlem Renaissance artists focused on these themes of racial identity and community.⁴ Major figures of the Harlem Renaissance included novelists Claude McKay, Jean Toomer, Jessie Fauset; artists Aaron Douglas, and Augusta Savage; and poets Countee Cullen and Sterling Brown. The Harlem Renaissance expanded beyond the borders of the Harlem neighborhood to reach audiences across America and for generations to come. 

One of the most influential figures of the Harlem Renaissance was poet Langston Hughes. Hughes gave voice to the people in his community and helped shape a new vision of what it meant to be Black in America. He described the everyday lives, hopes, and struggles of Black Americans. He called for his fellow artists to also focus on ordinary life as the subject of their works rather than the white Protestant themes. His poetry often incorporated the rhythms of jazz and blues as metaphors for the Black experience. Throughout the collection in poems such as “The Weary Blues,” “The Negro Speaks of Rivers,” and “I, Too,” Hughes not only celebrates the pride of Black heritage but also advocates for their civil rights. His work helped inspire future generations of Black writers and thinkers throughout the Civil Rights Movement and well into the twenty-first century.

The Weary Blues

It is easy to recognize the impact jazz and blues culture had on the work of Harlem Renaissance artists and Langston Hughes in particular. Specifically, much of The Weary Blues explored the impact of the progressive reforms such as Prohibition had on the African American community and culture. Institutions, namely The Cotton Club, inspired a few of the poems in the collection such as the title poem “The Weary Blues.” 

“The Weary Blues” focuses on Jazz culture in a New York City bar on Lenox Avenue, a common meeting place for working-class individuals of the area. Through this poem, Hughes encapsulates all aspects of 1920s Jazz. Hughes wrote the poem in a specific rhythm to mimic the structure and spirit of blues music. As shown in the video titled “‘The Weary Blues’ on CBUT, 1958” the poem is not meant to be read off the page, but performed, a common attribute to blues-inspired art. He uses metaphors to compare the rhythm and tones of jazz and blues music to the experiences of the Black man in America. The poem represents a standard blues performance from the perspectives of the singer and the narrator.⁵ The narrator describes the “dimly lit and shabbily furnished” club setting. The rest of the poem centers around a blues performer who sings about his sorrow and fatigue. The singer states, “I got the Weary Blues / And I can’t be satisfied” as he lazily sways to the rhythm of the tune. Hughes uses repetition to mimic the emotional currents of traditional blues and jazz. The lines “He did a lazy sway… / He did a lazy sway…” further show the swinging rhythm of the jazz performance. His language, tone, and body movement emphasize the melancholy feel associated with Jazz and the Black experience in the 1920s.

Significance to the 1920s

Specifically, much of The Weary Blues explored the impact the progressive reforms had on African American community and culture. Speakeasy and Jazz club culture associated with Harlem in the twenties boomed as a result of the Prohibition era.⁶ These speakeasies and clubs were an opportunity for Black artists and musicians to publicly voice their work and beliefs at a time when African Americans were still heavily disenfranchised. Before the Harlem Renaissance, the majority of art culture centered around the white experience.  Specific institutions, namely The Cotton Club, inspired a few of the poems in the collection such as the title poem “The Weary Blues.” 

Ultimately, the Harlem Renaissance was a response to racial tensions and prejudice aimed to foster and encourage Black identity, creativity, and intellectualism. Langston Hughes used his poetry collection to depict the daily lives and struggles of African Americans in Harlem during the twenties. The movement would not have been possible without the numerous progressive reforms and ideologies that bloomed in the twenties that allowed for the expression of previously silenced voices.

Footnotes

1. Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. United States: Hill and Wang, 2024. 160.
   
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2. A new African American identity: The Harlem Renaissance | National Museum of African American History and Culture. Accessed March 26, 2025. https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/new-african-american-identity-harlem-renaissance.  ︎
3. Drowne, Kathleen. “‘THEAH’S LIFE ANYWHERES THEAH’S BOOZE AND JAZZ’: Home to Harlem and Gingertown in the Context of National Prohibition.” Callaloo 34, no. 3 (2011): 2. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41243200. 
   
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4. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 161. ︎
5. Hughes, Langston, and Cheryl A. Wall. “A Note on ‘The Weary Blues.’” Lenox Avenue: A Journal of Interarts Inquiry 3 (1997): ii–vi. https://doi.org/10.2307/4177056. 
   
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6. Drowne, Kathleen. “‘THEAH’S LIFE ANYWHERES THEAH’S BOOZE AND JAZZ’: Home to Harlem and Gingertown in the Context of National Prohibition.” Callaloo 34, no. 3 (2011): 2. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41243200. ︎

Bibliography

Hughes, Langston, and Cheryl A. Wall. “A Note on ‘The Weary Blues.’” Lenox Avenue: A Journal of Interarts Inquiry 3 (1997): ii–vi. https://doi.org/10.2307/4177056.

A new African American identity: The Harlem Renaissance | National Museum of African American History and Culture. Accessed March 26, 2025. https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/new-african-american-identity-harlem-renaissance. 

Drowne, Kathleen. “‘THEAH’S LIFE ANYWHERES THEAH’S BOOZE AND JAZZ’: Home to Harlem and Gingertown in the Context of National Prohibition.” Callaloo 34, no. 3 (2011): 2. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41243200. 

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s. United States: Hill and Wang, 2024. 

Libertarianism.org. Accessed April 30, 2025. https://www.libertarianism.org/articles/harlem-renaissance-black-cultural-innovation-unleashed. 

YouTube. Accessed April 30, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uM7HSOwJw20. 

Erin Pryor

Erin Pryor is a History and Philosophy double major in the Honors Program, graduating with the Class of 2025. She is a writing consultant on campus at the Center for Reading and Writing. She is the president of Phi Alpha Theta history honors society and a member of Phi Alpha Delta pre-law fraternity.

Beyond the grandeur of the social scenes created by the media of the 1920s, the decade was also a period of immense social, economic, and political change. Following the conclusion of World War One, the 19th Amendment was ratified and Women gained Suffrage in 1920. This was also the time of the Prohibition and Temperance Movements which banned the sale of alcohol. The Temperance Movement helped gain support for the Women’s Suffrage movement through means of controlling the alcohol intake of men. Oftentimes drunk men exhibited abusive and aggressive behaviors towards their families which caused women to advocate for rights in society more heavily. 

In addition to the social advancements, there was a massive economic boom as a direct result of the conclusion of World War I. Populations grew in urban cities because of the industries and economic opportunities. Also with the addition of the Ford Assembly line, factories were a major source of employment for many men, women, and children. With the increased necessity of laborers, working conditions were extremely poor due to lack of federal regulations. The work days were incredibly long, the equipment was extremely dangerous, and there was a lack of labor unions. People often injured themselves at work because they were not trained or supervised. 

When searching for images of the 1920s Google did reflect my understanding of the decade. Many of the initial images include flappers and parties. The images focused on the portrayal of flappers highlighting their outfits and dances. They were surrounded by men, alcohol, and musicians. While the images themselves do not surprise me, it is striking how disproportionate the number of images of flappers is to other major events of the time period. Majority of the images depict flappers’ dress, dance, or bodies compared to other aspects of the decade. This is likely due to the media’s portrayal of the decade in entertainment such as The Great Gatsby.

In addition to the more upbeat social scenes depicted, there are also numerous images from protests during the 1920s. Majority of the protests reference Prohibition and Women’s Suffrage. This does not surprise me because these events were two major controversial social and political shifts during the time period. There were also a few images depicting protests for worker’s rights. One thing that surprised me was the amount of images focused on the streets and specifically cars of the 1920s. This is not a topic I often hear about in reference to the 20s and makes me curious as to how personal automobiles contributed to the social and economic standards of the decade. 

Bibliography

“The 1920s, the Roaring Twenties, in Britain.” Historic UK, December 8, 2023. https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/The-1920s-in-Britain/. 

Yumpu.com. “Bloximages.Chicago2.Vip.Townnews.Com Magazines.” yumpu.com. Accessed January 29, 2025. https://www.yumpu.com/en/bloximages.chicago2.vip.townnews.com. 

Erin Pryor

Erin Pryor is a History and Philosophy double major in the Honors Program, graduating with the Class of 2025. She is a writing consultant on campus at the Center for Reading and Writing. She is the president of Phi Alpha Theta history honors society and a member of Phi Alpha Delta pre-law fraternity.