When thinking of toys that have tested the fate of time, none are as prevalent as the yo-yo. It’s a simple toy that is two disks tied together with a string that people can perform increasingly difficult tricks with. The average person in the 21st century is aware of Duncan Toys Company and the various yo-yos they sell, but they don’t know who brought the modern concept to the United States.

What many people don’t realize is that the story of the first commercialized yo-yos is one of immigrant success during a time of hatred and nationalism. Despite the surplus of anti-Filipino riots throughout the United States and the eventual stock market crash, Pedro Flores created a product that lasted long after his death, and his name and story deserve to be acknowledged by the public sphere.

The Creator

Pedro Flores was born in 1896 in Vintar, a municipality in the Philippines. It’s very likely he did not have the best childhood growing up, as his home country was transitioning through a period of war and turmoil. They had been part of the Spanish–American War, with a naval battle happening in Manila bay, and many Filipinos fighting alongside the Americans.

When they were free from the chains of Spanish rule, the United States annexed them, and they soon found themselves in the Philippines-American War after revolting against their new colonial power, until the Philippines surrendered in 1901.

What he did gain from everything, despite his rough childhood, was the precursor to the modern yo-yo.

In 1915, at around 19 years old, Flores moved from the Philippines to the United States, landing himself in California in order to pursue an education at San Francisco’s High School of Commerce.¹ Afterwards, he studied law at the University of California’s law school, but dropped out and moved to Santa Barbra, working odd jobs in order to survive.²

While working as a bellboy, he decided to “[demonstrate] a toy that he had carved out of wood during his lunch break.”³ After reading of a man who made money off of a rubber ball attached to a string, he thought back to the yo-yo and figured it had market potential, stating “I do not expect to make a million dollars, I just want to be working for myself. I have been working for other people for practically all my life and I don’t like it.”⁴

From there, he set his pursuits on starting up a yo-yo company. He had no luck asking for assistance from wealthy Filipino countrymen, so Flores focused on receiving a certificate to conduct business, which he received on June 9th 1928. From there, he started the Yo-Yo Manufacturing Company in Santa Barbara, California.⁵

The Production

Although its modern iteration comes from Pedro Flores, the idea of the yo-yo has been around for centuries in Ancient Greece and China, showing up in pots and paintings respectively.⁶ In the 18th century, it was a popular toy among aristocrats and, in English, was referred to as a “bandalore” or “quiz.”⁷⁸ A popular theory states the yo-yo was used as a weapon in the Philippines, but there is no evidence to back up this claim.

Additionally, many people incorrectly claim that “yo-yo” is a word from Tagalog that translates to “come-come” or “to return” in English. In Tagalog, the word does not exist. “Halika dito” (come here) and “bumalik” (with a person, to return) are actual words in Tagalog, but not “yo-yo.”

Another theory is that the word comes from Ilocano, but I am not familiar enough with the language, nor do I know anyone who can speak it. This makes the question of where the word “yo-yo” comes from unanswered, but the simplest answer could be that Flores came up with something catchy that would help the toy sell. Unfortunately, no one can know for sure.

After the creation of the Yo-Yo Manufacturing Company, Flores created a dozen yo-yos that he sold to the neighboring children on June 23, 1928.⁹ Some quick math reveals that each yo-yo likely took a day to create. By November of that same year, 2,000 yo-yos were produced. This attracted financiers James Lewis and Daniel Stone, who helped him create a new company in Los Angeles that had machines.[] He finally didn’t have to carve yo-yos by hand. By November 1929, he also had Flores Yo-Yo Corporation in Hollywood, and was producing 300,000 yo-yos daily.

What helped propel the yo-yo’s popularity was the yo-yo contests held. The first contests happened in 1928, and were hosted by Pedro Flores himself in Santa Barbara. These original contests were a test to see “who could make the yo-yo go up and down the most times without stopping.”¹⁰

There were also contests to see “who could throw their yo-yo the farthest with a complete return to the hand, and who could perform the most perfect spins in five minutes.”¹¹ These fun tricks one could do with a yo-yo attracted the attention of various people, going as far out as interesting Donald F. Duncan, the man behind Duncan Toys Company.

After the success of the yo-yo, Flores sold the product to Duncan in 1930 for around $25,000 to $250,000—though many agree the price to be on the lower end of the spectrum.¹² He is quoted with saying “I am more interested in teaching children to use the yo-yos than I am in manufacturing of yo-yos,” and did promote the toy for Duncan after the fact.¹³ Flores continued to attach himself to the yo-yo, helping people such as Joe Radovan sell the Chico Yo-yo, and even started Flores Corp. of America in 1954, where he temporarily produced more of the toy.¹⁴ Unfortunately, many of these companies are gone, and Flores eventually passed in 1964, but Duncan still sells yo-yos of varying skill levels to this day.

Significance

Immigration and Racism

Pedro Flores was an immigrant from the Philippines. He isn’t unlike other immigrants who came to the United States; he likely traveled across the Pacific Ocean to seek a better life outside the Philippines. However, as a Filipino immigrant, his experience is more unique from other immigrants.

After the Spanish-American War and the Philippine-American War, the United States controlled the Philippines behind the scenes. This included Filipino education, where they taught the new generation English, and that all men are created equal. As a result, Filipinos did not see themselves as aliens when they immigrated to the United States and “existed, rather, in a midway zone between Filipino and American identity.”¹⁵

Filipino immigrants were also unaffected by the Immigration Act of 1917, which imposed literacy tests on Asian immigrants. This is likely due to the Philippines being controlled by the United States.

Numbers rose as more Filipinos immigrated to the United States, with a large population of them settling in California—it is the closest state to the Philippines, after all. However, as immigration rose throughout the United States, the Ku Klux Klan rose to fight for nativism. They were one of many groups to lobby for restrictions on immigration.¹⁶ Additionally, despite their focus being against black Americans and Catholics, they also targeted immigrants, such as Filipinos. The KKK stirred much anti-Asian sentiment within America, causing anti-Filipino riots to occur in America.

For example, in 1927, one of the biggest anti-Filipino riots happened in Yakima Valley, Washington. A mob of white people was demanding that Filipino farmworkers be driven out from the valley, believing that “since the Filipinos were brown-skinned and Asian, they should not be permitted to approach white women or compete with white men for jobs.”¹⁷ This is, obviously, not true and only serves to objectify Filipinos, but people believed it at the time, and these mobs eventually chased them out after threatening their deaths. The perpetrators were arrested, but only received ten days of jail time.

Something similar happened in Wenatchee Valley, Washington in 1928 and 1929, where Filipinos were chased out of the valley.¹⁸ What happened at these riots, and many other anti-Filipino riots throughout the decade, is disgusting. This isn’t even the worst of what I found, as more violent acts have been committed in different riots, but the fact that white people were willing to chase these Filipinos down because they looked different is a testament to the hatred of the decade, even with the pluralism of the time.

Despite this anti-Filipino sentiment along the West Coast, Pedro Flores still made a name for himself. This is an amazing accomplishment that should be celebrated alongside other famous figures of the decade. He made a noteworthy contribution to culture then and now, and his name deserves recognition as well.

Reflection of Culture

When reflecting upon consumer culture, the creation of the modern yo-yo for American audiences is an interesting case. Especially when compared to objects like the Form Model T.

Pedro Flores created a product based on the culture he knew, and managed to sell it through demonstration. According to Lynn Dumenil, blue-collar workers helped shape consumer culture, while white-collar workers were more susceptible to consumer culture through things such as advertising.¹⁹²⁰

As stated before with Filipino immigrants being the midway point of their Filipino and American identities, Flores’s yo-yos exist as him contributing his culture, that being a toy from the Philippines, while also successfully advertising it to the public.

The Modern Temper specifically discusses how advertisements in the 1920s utilized “the personal approach, the tendency to include “you” in the text.”²¹ He managed to encapsulate this perfectly with his yo-yo competitions. If a person wished to participate, they needed a yo-yo, and Flores Yo-yos were the only yo-yos available for a while. These competitions eventually spread outside Santa Barbara and outside California, furthering his product’s reach, and getting more people to buy his yo-yo.

On top of that, yo-yos were relatively cheap to make, meaning they could easily be produced and sold to the public. Even when the Great Depression hit, “[inexpensive] toys with high play value, such as the yo-yo and the Radio Flyer Wagon, were very lucrative investments. Whereas other American entrepreneurs lost fortunes, toy inventors such as Pedro Flores and Antonio Pasin acquired millions.”²² The yo-yo surviving the Great Depression is an incredible feat, but it’s thanks to the fact that it’s simply two wooden disks, a wooden axel, and a piece of string. Anyone could hypothetically create a yo-yo if they had the skill and patience.

What this meant for the 20s (and beyond?)

Ever since, the yo-yo has been a popular toy among children. In the late 90s, Yomega partnered with Bandai, causing a bunch of advertising of the yo-yo to spread like wildfire and reignite the craze for the toy.²³

The toy became so popular that National Yo-yo Day is celebrated on June 6th to commemorate Donald F. Duncan. While this is an amazing achievement for a toy to have, what about the man who brought the toy to the United States?

I’m not suggesting we change National Yo-yo Day to be on Pedro Flores’ birthday, but it is a shame that Duncan is celebrated before Flores.

The story behind the modern yo-yo is a story of Filipino success that should be celebrated. Considering the toy’s 100th year anniversary is coming up as of writing this blog post, Duncan Toys Company should commemorate the toy’s origin by retelling Pedro Flores’ story. That way, his name isn’t just a footnote in the toy’s history, as he had a huge role in bringing the toy over from the Philippines.

They also used to have a history page back in the early 2000s that mentioned Pedro Flores, but have since removed it as the years have gone by and website standards change. I personally believe they should bring their history page back, so that people curious about the origin of the yo-yo have a starting point and understand that Duncan shouldn’t be taking all the credit from Flores.

After all, to quote Lucky’s Collectors Guide to 20th Century Yo-yos: History and Values, “Although Duncan is now the name most frequently associated with the popularity of the yo-yo, Pedro Flores fueled the original yo-yo fire.”²⁴

Citations

Footnotes

1. Naomi Hirahara, Distinguished Asian American Business Leaders (Bloomsbury Academic, 2003), 57. ︎
2. Hirahara, 57. ︎
3. Hirahara, 57. ︎
4. Lucky J. Meisenheimer, Lucky’s Collectors Guide to 20th Century Yo-Yos (Lucky J’s Swim & Surf, 1998), 99. ︎
5. Meisenheimer, 99. ︎
6. Mark Fischetti, “String Theory,” Scientific American 291, no. 3 (2004): 110. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26060692. ︎
7. Fischetti, 110. ︎
8. Meisenheimer, 34. ︎
9. Meisenheimer, 99. ︎
10. Meisenheimer, 36. ︎
11. Meisenheimer, 100. ︎
12. Meisenheimer, 61. ︎
13. Meisenheimer, 100 ︎
14. Meisenheimer, 100. ︎
15. Kevin Starr, Golden Dreams (Oxford University Press, 2011), 450. ︎
16. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, 2007), 207. ︎
17. Steve Ross, “Ninety Years Ago in Washington, a Wave of Anti-Immigrant Sentiment Resulted in Horror for Filipinos,” Slate Magazine (Slate, August 4, 2017). https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2017/08/ninety-years-ago-in-washington-a-wave-of-anti-immigrant-sentiment-resulted-in-horror-for-filipinos.html?pay=1778139475174. ︎
18. Ross. ︎
19. Dumenil, 82. ︎
20. Dumenil, 86. ︎
21. Dumenil, 90. ︎
22. Sharon M. Scott, Toys and American Culture: An Encyclopedia (ABC-CLIO, 2009), xxiv. ︎
23. Dr. Yo-Yo’s Emporium of Wonderful Things, “AYYA: 10 Years and Throwing – the Unreleased Documentary,” YouTube, November 4, 2012, 30:36. https://youtu.be/EeYhGP92ESI?si=ufsyMmG1iAuFIyvR. ︎
24. Meisenheimer, 100. ︎

Bibliography

Dr. Yo-Yo’s Emporium of Wonderful Things. “AYYA: 10 Years and Throwing – the Unreleased Documentary.” YouTube, November 4, 2012. https://youtu.be/EeYhGP92ESI?si=ufsyMmG1iAuFIyvR.

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, 2007.

Fischetti, Mark. “String Theory.” Scientific American 291, no. 3 (2004): 110–11. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26060692.

Hirahara, Naomi. Distinguished Asian American Business Leaders. Bloomsbury Academic, 2003.

Meisenheimer, Lucky J. Lucky’s Collectors Guide to 20th Century Yo-Yos. Lucky J’s Swim & Surf, 1998.

Ross, Steve. “Ninety Years Ago in Washington, a Wave of Anti-Immigrant Sentiment Resulted in Horror for Filipinos.” Slate Magazine. Slate, August 4, 2017. https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2017/08/ninety-years-ago-in-washington-a-wave-of-anti-immigrant-sentiment-resulted-in-horror-for-filipinos.html?pay=1778139475174.

Scott, Sharon M. Toys and American Culture: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO, 2009.

Starr, Kevin. Golden Dreams. Oxford University Press, 2011.

Eryn Argonza

Eryn is a Ramapo College sophomore majoring in History and minoring in Museum Studies.

“The Roaring Life of the 1920s” splits its chapter into four parts, detailing the changing mindsets of the time, the women of the 1920s, education and pop culture, and the Harlem Renaissance. When discussing women during the 1920s, they do mention there being a “double standard” and that “many women were pulled back and forth between the old standards and the new.”¹ A discussion of struggle happens in the section on the Harlem Renaissance, writing that “Northern cities in general had not welcomed the massive influx of African Americans. Tensions had escalated… culminating… in approximately 25 urban race riots.”²

This is very important, as the struggles for both women and black Americans during the 1920s are clearly stated in the book, and not sugarcoated so children have an idea that, despite the movements during the time, the past is complicated, especially when it comes to oppressed groups.

Despite this, there is no mention of the hardships immigrants faced, with the most being that they “often ached for home.”³ Additionally, under a chart for the causes and effects of prohibition, the authors write that “native-born Americans developed a hostility to German-American brewers and toward other immigrant groups that used alcohol,” which could easily be glossed over if a child isn’t paying close attention.⁴

On the other hand, “Prosperity’s Promise” has more subtle splits that discuss the presidency and government of the time, the different movements and changes across America, and the economy. 

There is no mention of “flappers” in this textbook, only referring to them as “liberated women” who became less and less modest, with examples such as skirts being “9 inches from the ground! It soon had reached the knee” and “[women cutting] their hair short—and differently, it seemed, every year.”⁵

Any mention of the Harlem Renaissance is within the economic section, as they had moved to cities such as New York City due to labor shortages due to World War I. Despite this, it is only written as “a period of extraordinary creativity for Negro artists and musicians.”⁶

There are very few similarities between these two chapters. Neither chapter discusses the Stock Market Crash, though I figure that topic is saved for their respective Great Depression chapters. They also discuss the culture of the decade, albeit in varying depths. Overall, “The Roaring Life of the 1920s” is better for a general overview of the culture of the 1920s, while “Prosperity’s Promise” is better for a general overview of the 1920s, before the Great Depression.

Based on what Jennifer Fronc writes in “THE 1920s—A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL SURVEY,” these chapters fit into the context of what she writes about. “The Roaring Life of the 1920s” doesn’t go into full depth to how women were treated during the 1920s, but does mention how they were trapped between modernity and tradition. In regards to the Harlem Renaissance, it does a does still treat it “as an adjunct to the mainstream narrative of U.S. history,” as they discussed prominent African-Americans, such as James Weldon Johnson and Marcus Garvey and their accomplishments.⁷

On the contrary, “Prosperity’s Promise” Barely touches upon women and black Americans in the 1920s, but does touch upon immigrants. Unfortunately, there is only mention of Jewish and Catholic immigrants and the discrimination they faced.

Understanding when historians write helps evaluate how one could use a source, and understand how trustworthy it is. The different motives historians have during each decade is a huge driving factor that scholars have to take into account. Older sources are not more trustworthy than more modern sources, and trustworthiness depends on the author’s motives rather than the age of a source. Once this is finally understood scholars can more accurately determine which sources are best to use when writing a paper.

Citations

Footnotes

1. Gerald A. Danzer et al., The Americans, 647. ︎
2. Danzer et al., 659. ︎
3. Danzer et al., 642. ︎
4. Danzer et al., 643. ︎
5. Henry Graff and John Krout, The Adventure Of American People, 615. ︎
6. Graff and Krout, 623. ︎
7. Jennifer Fronc, “THE 1920s—A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL SURVEY,” 20. ︎

Bibliography

Danzer, Gerald A., J. Jorge Klor de Alva, Larry S. Krieger, Louis E. Wilson, and Nancy Woloch. The Americans. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, 2005.

Fronc, Jennifer. “THE 1920s—A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL SURVEY.” Taylor & Francis Group, 2018.

Graff, Henry and John Krout. The Adventure Of American People. Rand McNally, 1966.

Eryn Argonza

Eryn is a Ramapo College sophomore majoring in History and minoring in Museum Studies.

For a second time, The Jazz Singer plays again. There is more to be discussed with this film in terms of the themes of The Modern Temper, as it focuses on secularism. These themes are presented throughout the film, and are important to the message it gives to the audience.

The biggest theme shared with both mediums is the push-and-pull relationship between religion and modernity. Religion became less popular as secularism rose, causing religious groups, like Judaism, attempting to change in order to appeal to the younger generation.

Reform Judaism proposed “Reconstrictionism,” which “[de-emphasized] the belief in the supernatural, the ideas of Jews as a chosen people, and adherence to archaic Jewish law.”¹ On the other hand, more traditional sects, “modified the traditional orthodoxy of Southern and Eastern European parents to make it more palatable to modern Americans.”² As a result, there were people who joined synagogues and contributed to Judaism through donations.

The Modern Temper also discusses how “Jewish identity became for them a semisecularized form of ethnicity,” which does reflect in The Jazz Singer.³ Judaism is a core identity of Jack Robin, the main character, and he does struggle with choosing religion or modernity. In the end, he does choose performing at the synagogue in place of his father over performing on Broadway, reflecting Judaism staying strong in the United States, despite the film ending with him performing on the stage.

Surprisingly, what the film does not touch upon is the rampant anti-Semitism throughout the period. Even before the 1920s, Jewish people were seen as lesser than due to nativism, and their religion and practices were referred to as “alien” and “outlandish.”⁴ As a result, hostility against Jewish people rose as they were discriminated against socially and economically. Additionally, conspiracy theories against Jews were rampant, such as claims of “most nation-states [being] strongly influenced if not completely controlled by Jews” and the claims of Jewish people controlling the banking system.⁵

Despite the rampant anti-Semitism, The Jazz Singer doesn’t feature any commentary on it. While it, arguably, would have made the themes of the film slightly convoluted, it wouldn’t be a bad thing. It would have made for a more intriguing story if there were a comment or two of distrust made by one of his peers, making his choice more difficult. It would also give more to discuss about the film in terms of its contemporary look on Jewish people rather than simply a divide between secularization and religion.

Overall, while secularism and religion are the driving themes in The Jazz Singer, there’s not much to the film besides that. The relationship between Jack and his Judaism is shallow, and while Jewish people do have a history with vaudeville, it’s not extremely crazy to say that the story would have been drastically different if the main character were a different religion, such as Catholic.

While it holds up as the first ever film with dialogue, there’s not much more past the conflict of religion, and there are stories created after this film that likely do this plotline better.

Footnotes

1. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 175. ︎
2. Dumenil, 176. ︎
3. Dumenil, 176. ︎
4. Dumenil, 214. ︎
5. Dumenil, 216. ︎

Bibliography

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, 2007.

Eryn Argonza

Eryn is a Ramapo College sophomore majoring in History and minoring in Museum Studies.

Overview

Production

The Vitaphone was invented and utilized to create synchronized sound, and was the key tool that made production of The Jazz Singer possible. Originally developed by Bell Laboratories, this device could record and play back sound that was synchronized with a film reel, and amplify that sound throughout a room, provided the audio could be played within it.

On October 6th, The Jazz Singer was released in theaters. Directed again by Alan Crosland it was the first film to utilize synchronized sound and dialogue. However, the public reaction to the film was lukewarm compared to Don Juan. Robert E. Sherwood states that “[it] has a good idea (taken from Sam Raphaelson’s play), but it has been hoked and sugared to a regrettable extent; and Al Jolson as an actor on the screen is only fair.”³

Despite this less than favorable reception, the film showed that synchronized dialogue was possible, and it wasn’t long until films, such as Lights of New York, made use of synchronized dialogue throughout its entire runtime, putting silent films to rest.

Film Summary

The film starts with Cantor Rabinowitz, who represents traditions and religion. He is awaiting his son, Jackie Rabinowitz, who will sing the Koi Nidre for the synagogue. Sara Rabinowitz, Jackie’s mother and the canton’s wife, suggests that maybe Jackie doesn’t wish to be a Cantor. However, he refuses such a notion and suggests he must be a Cantor because it’s tradition to do so.

While this is happening, Jackie, as a young boy, is performing at a local saloon. He represents modernization and secularism. He is then caught by one of his fathers friends, who alerts Cantor Rabinowitz before he goes to take Jackie back home. Jackie threatens to run away if he gets whipped, and does so after he is punished by his father. Later, at the Yom Kippur service, Cantor Rabinowitz denounces Jackie as his son.

Years later, Jackie changes his name to Jack Robin and is now a jazz singer. He is not famous, but his singing of “Dirty Hands, Dirty Face” and “Toot, Toot, Tootsie” leads to him meeting a woman named Mary Dale, someone who’s been on the stage. She compliments his voice and offers to help him get famous.

As that happens, Cantor Rabinowitz is instructing another child on being a cantor as Sara reads a letter from Jack about how he’s currently doing. After the child leaves and tells Sara that the Cantor is angry, she decides to tell him about how Jack is doing. It’s baffling she’s saddened after he denounces Jack once again, as she should have figured telling him would make things worse, but I suppose it’s her life.

After traveling from Portland to Chicago, Mary lands a lead role for a musical in New York City, leaving Jack behind in Chicago. A few minutes later, Jack also lands a role for a musical in New York City and travels there. Back at home, Cantor Rabinowitz celebrated his 60th birthday, and Jack returns home to find his father teaching a class on being a cantor, while his mother works in the kitchen. Sara and Jack hug and catch up before his father catches him. For a third time, his father is upset at Jack for being different, they argue, and Jack leaves the house for a second time.

After that, it showcases April Follies, the musical Jack and Mary are performing in. He’s shocked by her appearance, and rehearsal continues normally. However, Cantor Rabinowitz is sick in bed, and Jack finds out through his father’s friend. He now has to make the choice between performing at the synagogue in place of his dad, or performing on Broadway, which tears him apart before he makes his final decision.

After a few talks with Mary, meeting his mother once again, and seeing his father on his death bed, he ultimately decides to disappear on opening night and sing at the synagogue. This makes his father happy before he dies, and mends Jack’s internal rift between religion and modernity. After the fact, despite being told he would never have another job on Broadway again, the film ends with him performing “My Mammy” on the stage at a later date.

Significance 

Religion and Assimilation

The major conflict within The Jazz Singer is Jack wanting to be a jazz vocalist, while his father wants him to be a cantor. This is reflective of not only secularization, but assimilation as well. The 1920s brought upon change to society, which made Americans more secular. This contributed to poor attendance in various religious institutions and “eroding support for missionary activities.”⁴ As a result of this decline, religions had to change in order to keep with the times and keep attendance rates up.

One way Judaism changed, especially more Conservative congregations, was to modify their “traditional orthodoxy of their Southern and Eastern European parents to make it more palatable to modern Americans.”⁵ Despite it not working as well as they hoped, these attempts to assimilate and appeal to the American public reflect upon Jack’s character in The Jazz Singer as he tries to pursue the theater.

One of the major ways this is shown is Jack’s name, as he was originally named Jacob Rabinowitz. Being the son of a Jewish immigrant, he decided to anglicize his name in an attempt to fit in with the rest of American society. This practice still happens today; immigrants and their children anglicize their names in the United States, typically to fit in in a crowd of mainly white-sounding names. My mother comes to mind as an example; she tells restaurant workers that her name is “Maya” in order to make writing and calling her name easier.

Jack also attempts to appeal to the 1920s public by pursuing the career of a jazz singer instead of a cantor, like his father. This does paint Jack as being secular against his father’s religion, especially as the film shows Jack striving away from being a cantor, reflecting upon the attitude towards religion in the 1920s.

Additionally, the film’s climax shows Jack abandoning the theater to sing at the synagogue, before ending the film with a performance on stage, showing that religion is only a fraction of life, as Jack pursues his goal of being a jazz singer at the end of all. Times change, the world becomes more modern, and Jack is a representation of an assimilationist who, ultimately, decided against Judaism in favor of a more American lifestyle.

Racism

Besides the conflict between an immigrant father and his American-born son, one of the biggest points of The Jazz Singer is Jack’s use of blackface throughout the film. This is likely because “one of the functions of blackface was to offer whites a mask that allowed them to be more expressive than the Victorian norm permitted whites.”⁶ It was also seen as the norm within Vaudeville entertainment, since it derived itself from minstrel shows, where white actors utilized blackface in order to portray racial stereotypes of African Americans.

Additionally, it does make sense considering that anti-Semitism was rampant during the 1920s, especially considering that a handful of immigrants at the time were Jewish people attempting to assimilate into a Protestant country. Jewish people were one of the many groups targeted by the Klu Klux Klan.

I’m not trying to defend blackface. It’s completely acceptable to be uncomfortable with the film’s use of blackface, especially considering The Jazz Singer is accredited with being the film that killed the silent film industry without the other parts of it being mentioned. However, modern audiences should not only be aware of blackface being a prevalent part of The Jazz Singer, but draw their own understanding of why it’s being utilized. There were unfortunate norms during the 1920s, as stated above when discussing Vaudeville as a successor to minstrel shows. On the other hand, Jews were also an oppressed group during the 1920s, meaning Rogin’s interpretation of intersectionality may not be entirely wrong.
At the end of the day, it’s up to audience interpretation as to their thoughts on the presence of blackface within The Jazz Singer. However, the average person in the modern day may agree that it is used to harm instead of connecting with black people.

Reflection of Culture

The Jazz Singer, alongside showcasing assimilation and racism, “reflected and reinforced the consumer culture” of the time.⁸ This is blatantly shown in the film, as the protagonist is pursuing the job of a jazz vocalist. He sings to entertain an audience, which, as stated before, is a point of conflict between him and his father.

This career choice directly reflects upon the way society consumed material goods, especially after the Victorian Era, which promoted traditionalism and restraint. After World War I, societal values began to lax and become open minded in comparison to upholding traditional values. This included secularism, causing those who finished a day at work to have free time on their hands that attending a religious service, such as a sermon, would typically fill.

Since workers didn’t wish to attend religious service, especially as religion began to be pushed farther and farther from society’s minds, consumerism began to fill the void as the 1920s continued on, which has managed to seep into the modern day. As more material goods and services began pandering to a broader public, such as the sale of cars to the everyday worker, there was a sense of abundance that increased the demand for these products among citizens.

This influx in demand created even more goods and services to be created, such as nightclubs and theaters, especially as business owners attempted to cash in on the buzz around such services. This opens up more opportunities for the public to experience these services, ultimately fueling the cycle of consumerism. Jack isn’t an expedition to this cycle, as the career he pursues directly helps to keep it a well-oiled machine. Both in the sense that the film is being released in theaters and Jack himself is a jazz singer, which is one of the many performances people would pay to see.

Although he does perform at the synagogue, he still returns to the theater to sing jazz after his father passes. Religion plays a part in his life, but he still prioritized theater, showcasing secularism and his willingness to continue the cycle of consumerism, whether he knows it or not.

The 1920s and Beyond

At the end of the day, the 1920s as a whole is looked back on with fondness, including the entertainment industry. This has manifested as tributes over the years, with films such as Singin’ in the Rain paying homage to the shift towards dialogue within films.

However, there should still be acknowledgement of The Jazz Singer’s story and how it reflects the 1920s at the time of its production. There’s more to the time period than the entertainment it provides, as there are examples of modernism with Jack’s character and reflections of culture in the job he pursues. Additionally, there’s the issue of racism with the film’s use of blackface and a conflict between religion and secularism that manages to provide the best of both worlds via a mix of a happy ending for both sides at the end of the film.

While it’s not a worldwide event such as the stock market crash, The Jazz Singer is still an intriguing window into the way the people of the 1920s reflected upon changing societal norms and problems.

Citations

Bibliography

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, 2007.

Hall, Mordaunt. “VITAPHONE STIRS AS TALKING MOVIE: New Device Synchronizing Sound With Action Impresses With Its Realistic Effects. NOTED MUSICIANS HEARD Provides Orchestral Accompaniment to Photoplay “Don Juan” With John Barrymore.” New York Times (1923-), 1926. https://ramapo.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/vitaphone-stirs-as-talking-movie/docview/103776000/se-2. 

Koszarski, Richard. “Vitaphone’s First Night.” MoMA 2, no. 2 (1989): 16–17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4381092. 

Sherwood, Robert E. “The Silent Drama.” Life 90 (1927): 24 

Rogin, Michael. “Blackface, White Noise: The Jewish Jazz Singer Finds His Voice.” Critical Inquiry 18, no. 3 (1992): 417–53. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343811. Tankel, Jonathan D. “The Impact of The Jazz Singer on the Conversion to Sound.” Journal of the University Film Association 30, no. 1 (1978): 21–25. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20687409.

Footnotes

1. Richard Koszarski, “Vitaphone’s First Night,” MoMA 2, no. 2 (1989): 17. ︎
2. Mordaunt Hall, “VITAPHONE STIRS AS TALKING MOVIE: New Device Synchronizing Sound With Action Impresses With Its Realistic Effects. NOTED MUSICIANS HEARD Provides Orchestral Accompaniment to Photoplay “Don Juan” With John Barrymore,” New York Times (1923-),(1926): 6. ︎
3. Robert E. Sherwood, “The Silent Drama,” Life 90 (27 October 1927): 24. ︎
4. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, (2007): 170. ︎
5. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, (2007): 176. ︎
6. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, (2007): 95. ︎
7. Michael Rogin, “Blackface, White Noise: The Jewish Jazz Singer Finds His Voice,” Critical Inquiry 18, no. 3 (1992): 430. ︎
8. Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, (2007): 94. ︎

Eryn Argonza

Eryn is a Ramapo College sophomore majoring in History and minoring in Museum Studies.

The Jazz Singer is one of the most influential films in history due to its use of synchronized sound in a feature-length movie. However, there is much more to unpack when it comes to the film and its various themes, such as how it reflects upon work and consumerism in the 1920s. The book actually touches upon this film, stating it “reflected and reinforced the consumer culture” of the time.¹ However, in order to understand what The Modern Temper means by The Jazz Singer being a prime example of consumer culture, we have to understand what consumer culture was like back then.

Overall, consumer culture came as a turning point away from “the Victorian “production” ethos of work, restraint, and order.”² This came as a result of cultural pluralism, commercialization, and changing social values, and with The Jazz Singer, one has to look at how leisure and consumption were practiced, specifically among white-collar workers.

As a result of more material goods being sold to a wider audience, there was a sense of abundance that resonated within the United States. There were also various nightclubs and movies one could go to, along with sports gaining popularity during the 20s.³ This fed the cycle of consumerism, as Americans would spend money and entrepreneurs began to cash in on the various trends of the decade through new establishments and advertisements.

When it came to how the middle class, white-collar workers participated in leisure and consumption, there was a sense of “self-expression and self-realization through consumption and leisure.”⁴ This meant they could find satisfaction in consumption rather than work, or even religion, leading to money being put towards material goods and entertainment, perpetuating the cycle of consumerism. This is where The Jazz Singer comes in, as it is portrays what made consumer culture into what it was at the time, such as the main character’s job choice of a jazz singer, which correlates with how entertainment was prominent during the 1920s.⁵ As a result, this film helps encapsulate how leisure was important to society back then, as the audience helped to perpetuate consumerism.

In addition to showing what consumer culture was like back in the 20s, this film shows a change in ideas through the lens of a second-generation Jewish person. Throughout the film, Jack, the main character, wants to become an entertainer, and yet his father, a Jewish cantor, wants him to follow in his footsteps.⁶ Although not a revolutionary idea to create a movie out of, this helped normalize the idea of immigrants and immigrant stories within the American population. However, it does also call back to older ideas such as blackface, as Jack utilizes it in his performances. This calls back to minstrel shows, which are a product of racism, and the use of blackface only sustains racist stereotypes.

Overall, when looking at The Jazz Singer and its historical context, a viewer can see that the film is not only famous for its use of sounds, but reflects the societal view of leisure and entertainment during the 1920s. The film is a product of its time, and while it’s not as grand as the Stock Market Crash, it still gives insight into the culture of the time.

Footnotes

1. Dumenil, Lynn, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s, 94. ︎
2. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 57. ︎
3. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 77. ︎
4. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 85. ︎
5. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 94-95. ︎
6. Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 94. ︎

Bibliography

Dumenil, Lynn. The Modern Temper : American Culture and Society in the 1920s. New York, Ny: Hill and Wang, 2007.

Eryn Argonza

Eryn is a Ramapo College sophomore majoring in History and minoring in Museum Studies.

That’s not to mention things created during the Jazz Age, such as The Great Gatsby, which is a commentary on not only the American Dream, but also the state of the world where the rich party, and the poor suffer. All this to say that when looking back on the 1920s through the lens of pop culture, the era feels glamorized. It’s the perfect setting for crime, parties, and art, but there is definitely more under the surface that not many people, especially nowadays, discuss within the art they create about the time period, such as racism.

When looking up “the 1920s” in Google, I found a bunch of images of people celebrating and living their lives on the surface. One image I found was a bunch of women in a car waving American flags. There were also women protesting for the right to vote, and men protesting the right to have alcohol. Within these search results are also several images of flappers, women who defied the societal norms of the time and dressed in knee-height dresses with low necklines.¹ However, as I continued to scroll, I noticed there weren’t as many images of black people than there are of white people. Even then, they were mostly musicians playing for the entertainment of white people.

Now that I have images in my mind from the 1920s, I feel my impressions are the same. They do feel weaker, considering I claimed the era was glamorized for parties and there’s various images of people partying, but I also understand that these images are one part of a whole era. I’d need more sources, such as books and scholarly articles about the 1920s, to truly know if my initial impressions were correct. There’s also the fact that I got these images from Google, which grows more untrustworthy the more artificial intelligence is integrated into everyday life. With the push of a button, anyone can generate an artificial image of what the 1920s looks like, which makes me skeptical on which images are real, and which are fake. Although it is important to check the source of where these images are coming from through reverse image searches and checking where it was posted, it can be difficult to tell at times with how realistic generative AI has gotten in imitating photo and video footage. Overall, I feel my impression about the 1920s being glamorized still stands.

Citations

¹ History.com Editors. 2018. “Flappers – 1920s, Definition & Dress | History.” History. A&E Television Networks. March 6, 2018. https://www.history.com/articles/flappers.

Eryn Argonza

Eryn is a Ramapo College sophomore majoring in History and minoring in Museum Studies.