Summary

Dorothy M. Brown’s novel titled “Setting A Course: American Women in the 1920s” was written in 1987 and goes into depth regarding the roles that women held throughout the 1920s. Throughout her book she uses scholarly sources relevant to the time of publishing and primary sources to support her thought-provoking writings and main scope of her topic on women’s roles. Brown emphasizes that the evolution of the woman, commonly referred to as the “New Woman” was somewhat compartmentalized, boxed up and left to be. However, Brown signifies the diversity that many women embraced into their lives. It describes how there was a great deal of excitement for the possibilities for women after the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment but the inequality between men and women continued to linger.

How Does it Fit Into the Larger Historiography of the 1920s?

“Setting A Course: American Women in the 1920s” is significant to the larger historiography of the 1920s because it demonstrates the diversity of roles that women began to receive during this time period. As discussed in my two other posts on women’s rights, “Evolution of Women’s Roles in India” and “Ida B Well’s Role in Women Suffrage,” it was throughout this decade that the traditional roles of a woman shifted and began to evolve. The initial thought that many have when initially thinking about the 1920s is the dominance of flappers, which were young women that were highly confident and often lived a life that at the time was seen to be outrageous and shopping. The Flappers paved the way for women to demand economic, political, and sexual freedoms for themselves. However, this opened up to the diversity of women’s roles which is exactly what Brown’s book discusses. It can be related to Paula S. Fass’s “The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s” as Fass focuses her novel on how the youth of America experienced a shift in their own roles, as well as how the relationship between a man and a woman evolved. Brown’s novel relates to Fass’s novel as Brown’s takes essentially is taking a more specific section on women of Fass’ while focusing on women’s roles and developed that idea into her own novel. A few years after Brown’s novel published in 1987, Lynn Dumenil wrote: “The Modern Temper American Culture and Society in the 1920s” which took a broader stance on the misconceptions of the 1920s and how there was a much deeper cultural shift that took place, which likely encompasses some of Brown’s general thoughts on a woman’s role in society.

What Does it Provide to a Reader Interested in the 1920s?

Dorothy M. Brown’s “Setting A Course: American Women in the 1920s” provides readers a new look on women’s roles during the 1920s and how they have evolved from the traditional stereotype of women being only the housewives. Not only does it work to educate reader’s on women’s roles, but it introduces a broader issue of what is thought of as the key events and occurrences of the 1920s. There are many significant contributions that took place during this decade and it is important to note significance to each of them. However, in undergraduate studies, this decade is not very focused on thus leading students to form misconceptions based on the “Great Gatsby,” which is a great novel, however, not the sole focus of what this time period was like. Reading Brown’s book is one way for readers to begin educating themselves on the 1920s and the significance of this era.

Resources

Brown, Dorothy Marie. “Setting a Course: American Women in the 1920s.” Google Books. Twayne. Accessed May 12, 2021. https://books.google.com/books/about/Setting_a_Course.html?id=SxAqAAAAYAAJ.

Dumenil, Lynn. “The New Woman and the Politics of the 1920S.” OAH Magazine of History 21, no. 3 (2007): 22-26. Accessed May 12, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25162125.

Nichols, Carole, and Dorothy M. Brown. “Setting a Course: American Women in the 1920s.” The Journal of American History 75, no. 1 (1988): 294. https://doi.org/10.2307/1889761.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.

When first going into this course and trying to identify the various events that took place during the 1920s, I had a very narrow focus on looking at the United States. However, a number of my peers opened my eyes by choosing to cover topics from all around the world including Greece, Egypt, and Russia. For example, I learned during the early 1920s, the Greco-Turkish War took place from 1919-1922. While the war may not seem as significant at first glance, I was able to see the cause of this War was correlated as an effect to World War One. I also learned about how one year later, in 1923, King “Tut” Tutankhamun’s tomb was exhumed. This influenced many industries that are forms of art such as fashion, textiles, and jewelry. Another notable event or time period occurred in 1924, when Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, more commonly known as Lenin, died. His death rocked Russia as he was the founding leader of Soviet Russia, which during that period became the Soviet Union, from 1917 until 1924.

My advice to anyone interested in learning more about the 1920s is to open your eyes past notable events and individuals that occurred or lived in the United States. There is a great deal of culture that developed and many significant contributions that were made during this time in history. My views have changed from what I initially envisioned the 1920s to be. They have not necessarily shifted to thinking of whether my opinion on this decade was right or wrong, but rather it has expanded to look outside of the box from what I have heard during the one history class in high school that mentioned “The Roaring Twenties” to see how it shaped our current society, about one hundred years later.

Resources:

“History Milestone: The Greco-Turkish War.” Origins. https://origins.osu.edu/milestones/may-2019-greco-turkish-war-smyrna-sakarya-kemal-ottoman.

“King Tutankhamun: How a Tomb Cast a Spell on the World.” BBC Culture. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20191029-king-tutankhamun-the-tragic-cause-of-the-pharaohs-cult.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.

Throughout the 1920s, there were many achievements for women’s rights, beginning with the nineteenth amendment in 1920. This was the beginning of the evolution of women’s roles. While many are familiar with the gender roles that were historically known to be strict, other countries, such as India, had much worse gender stereotypes and gender violence. Women were heavily oppressed and were discouraged from fighting for their rights. This document, “Women and New India,” is an article that was written by Agnes Smedley, an American journalist, quoting from her interview with Lila Singh, a women suffragist in India on women’s roles in the 1900s. This document is important in the greater context of understanding the 1920s, as the concept of women’s rights in this time period tend to be discussed only in the light of the United States, however, the oppression of women occurred in many other countries, and at times, were treated much more poorly.

Record of “Women and New India”

Transcription

Women and New India 
(An Interview with Mrs. Lila Singh, a Suffragist of India) 

"The women of India are part and parcel of Hindustan; [term used to reference the modern day India] they retain the traditions and customs of India, and they are the greatest potential forces in the struggle for freedom through which India must and is passing."

These are the words of Mrs. Lila Singh, [women suffragist in India] of Behar, India, who toured the United States in company with her husband, Mr. Deep Narayan Singh. [Mr. Singh was an Indian politician and served as the Chief Minister of Bihar] While in this country Mrs. Singh carefully studied the activities of American women. She met women of every walk of life and by her own charming personality, her perfect command of English and her strong and determined character, made a good many friends. 

Mrs. Lila Singh was the first woman student in a college exclusively meant for men. She obtained the degree of Master of Arts in Philosophy and Literature with honors from the Calcutta University.  Her father, Mr. T. N. Palit, before his death bequeathed his entire fortune for the promotion of education. He founded Bengal Technical Institute affiliated with the National Council of Education, and College of Science affiliated with the Calcutta University. Her husband, Mr. Deep Narayan Singh, is a publicist and promoter of education. He is the founder of T. N. College at Bhagalpur, Behar, India. 

Speaking at greater length upon the women of India, Mrs. Singh declared that although education is available to but a few, yet everywhere and with almost all Indian women, there is a vague, or a more clearly-defined unrest because of their lack of opportunity, and because of their suffering. 

"Those who are more conscious of India's position in the world," she continued, "realist that at the bottom of these evils is the denial of education to the people in general, and to women more particularly. The reasons for that denial are deeper and more fundamental still; they are political and economic in origin. 

"I admit our social evils. I am not one of those persons who would build a plea upon falsehoods. But the very fact that the social evils exist is the strongest possible argument for a complete political and economic change, because these conditions are but effects of a system. The same situation existed in Europe and America up to a short time ago, comparatively speaking. And the women of Europe and America would be in the same position as the women of India if the same political system prevailed in those countries. 

"I will give but one example, without comment, to show what I mean. I will quote cold figures, [essentially meaning statistics or exact numbers] which are not of my own composition. These figures are of military expenditure in India, and of money spent on education by the present government: 

"In 1915-16, $132,000,000 was spent on the military.

"In 1916-17, $148,000,000 was spent on the military.

"In 1917-18, $180,000,000 was spent on the military. 

"In 1919-20, $346,000,000 was spent on the military. 

"In 1920, the same year when $346,000 was spent on militarism from the revenues of the Indian people, we tried to secure an appropriation for $76,000,000 for primary education - education just for the first few grades. No money could be found! India was poor - the budget did not provide for it! Yet, in that same year, an extra $80,000,000 was needed for additional military expenditure to carry on a war with Afghanistan and in the Near East. And immediately the $80,000,000 was forthcoming!

"Of the entire Indian budget, 63% is spent on military expenditures, and but 6% on education. 

[page 2] "We would be beyond human if, under such circumstances, our women were not ignorant and superstitious, not to mention poverty-stricken.

"Our isolation from the world has been the other great reason for our position. The ideals availble to you have not been available to us. 

"I find that among the women of India, while their political consciousness is not fully developed, yet there is widespread dissatisfaction with things which they are powerless to control. They desire education for their daughters - yet how can they get it? 

"But wherever women have broken away from custom, or wherever they have braved the strom of public life, the men have put no obstacles in their way, and they do not suffer the calumny which pioneer women of Europe and American have suffered. 

"Our women have gone into professions hitherto closed to them, yet they meet with the greatest courtesy and respect from the Indian men. There have been exceptions to this rule, but not many. It is for this reason that I have great hope for the future activities of women in India. This tolerance in the Indian mind, imbred for centuries, will find expression in the future in socail life, just as it has ruled in the religious field in the past. With such tolerance as a foundation, the rapid rise of women in all lines of endeavor is assured. 

"Some of the most prominent national examples of this are, of course, Mrs. Sarojini Naidu, [first Indian woman to become an Indian State Governor and President of the Indian National Congress] the poetess, publicist and lecturer, and Mrs. Sarala Devi Chandhurani, [a founding member of the Indian National Congress] who has been active in the nationalist movement all her life. It was Sarala Devi who revived the national festival and physical training among the boys in Bengal, and who helped revive the industries in the Punjab. Her efforts also contributed to the revival of home industries among the women; these industries not only aided India nationally, but they made the women self-supporting. 

"Mrs. Hazrat Mohani, the wife of an editor who was deported because of his political activities, is known for her educational work. Mrs. Hirabai A. Tata, Miss Mithibai A. Tata, and Mrs. Mrinalini Sen are nationally known for their leading part in suffrage movement. Mrs. Svarnamayee Ghosal is well known as a journalist and novelist. She was the first editor of the powerful Bengali monthly, The Bharati.

"Besides there could be mentioned the names of many women throughout India, such as Mrs. Justice Ranade and Mrs. Parvatibai Arthavale, noted for their educational works among the widows. Mrs. Arthavale is now in America, studying settlement work. 

"The part women have played in famine relief, in education, in social reform, in the revival of industries, in literature and art, not to mention in politics in the past, has been great. 

"Today those of us who are principally interested in the advancement of women demand that men and women be given equal and free educational opportunities.

"The rate at which India is advancing politically and economically is automatically affecting women. But that rate would be accelerated a hundred fold if women could take an active part in it. I advocate actual action in public life, side by side with the men. Because when the women of India undertake a thing they finish it. Furthermore, India is closer to them and they to India than many of the men. 

"We demand the right to walk side by side with the men of our country, and shape the destiny of our beloved Motherland unhampered by any alien interference. We wish no other status. And this status must be real, not theoretical." 

- AGNES SMEDLEY

Analysis

While it was not until the late 1970s that women in India were gaining the confidence to speak out against the mistreatment, violence, and oppression of women, the 1920s were still an important time in India. It was the beginning of a movement that within the next fifty years would snowball into something greater. As written in the article by Ms. Agnes Smedley, it was during these recent times that women were celebrating many firsts. The first section of the document, where Smedly writes, “…they [women] retain the traditions and customs of India, they [women] are the greatest potential forces in the struggle for freedom through which India must and is passing,” is extremely powerful. As mentioned earlier, this marked the early stages of the women’s rights movement as they were trying to find their footing in society and how to gain independence.

To learn more about the achievements of women during the 1920s and to get an understanding of women’s suffrage from the perspective of the United States, you may read another post I wrote titled, “Ida B. Wells’ Role in Women’s Suffrage.”

References

Banka, Neha. “Sarala Devi: From Tagore’s Family, a Leading Light of the Swadeshi Movement.” The Indian Express, March 8, 2020. https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/sarala-devi-tagore-family-swadeshi-movement-bengali-revolutionary-6302759/.

“Sarojini Naidu.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Accessed May 12, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sarojini-Naidu.

The Swaddle. “A Brief History of Indian Women Protesting Gender Inequality.” The Swaddle, October 19, 2020. https://theswaddle.com/a-brief-history-of-indian-women-protesting-gender-inequality/.

“Women and New India, September 1920.” Jane Addams Digital Edition. Accessed May 12, 2021. https://digital.janeaddams.ramapo.edu/items/show/28691.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.

The website that I chose for my website analysis assignment is the National Women’s History Museum (NWHM), specifically a sub they titled “Crusade for the Vote.” They have a wide variety of resources including primary sources, educator resources, recommended readings, and a link to their physical museum website, womenshistory.org. The website provides the context of the 1920s and the women’s fight to vote. In the main paragraph at the top of their webpage, they mention Elizabeth Cady Stanton and her role in the Seneca Falls Convention and the “arduous journey” towards expanding women’s rights. An empowering quote from Susan B. Anthony is also featured, reading, “There will never be complete equality until women themselves help to make the laws and elect the lawmakers.”

The creator of the website is the National Women’s History Museum which is located in Alexandria, Virginia. On their ‘About Us’ page, they state their mission to be “to tell the stories of women who transformed our nation.” They plan to achieve that “through growing state-of-the-art online presence and a future physical museum to educate, inspire, empower, shape the future, and provide a complete view of American history.” The current director, President & CEO, is Holly Hotchner, who was also the first museum director at one of America’s oldest museums, the New-York Historical Society. On her biographical page, she is quoted saying “Today, women are not only finding their voices, but their voices are also being heard. There could be no better time than now to build this museum.”

The site is very well done. It is aesthetically pleasing and very responsive. The color palette of the website is very cohesive as the colors are neutral but also have some bright shades of purple that help the sections of the website to really pop. The website has interactive elements such as a Timeline with high-quality images of primary documents and photos of crucial figures during the women’s rights movement from 1820 through 1920, covering a whole century. The quality and modernity of the website create a pleasant experience when searching through their site. There are also three buttons on this page (as shown above) that lead to three additional pages: (1) the history of woman suffrage, (2) additional educational resources, and (3) scanned versions of primary sources.

I do trust the site because it is produced by a well-known museum that has access to primary sources. From the presentation of the website, it seems that the authors worked very hard on it and have done extensive research to ensure that the information is accurate but also presented in a way that is easy to navigate and visually appealing.

This site can be used for 1920s research in various ways. One can use it for access to both primary and secondary resources. The research and information that is provided span over a century’s worth of information. In regards to the 1920s specifically, there is enough information that is provided to ensure that an individual using the website for research can gain enough information that provides enough context of the era, as well as the aftermath of various developments that took place during this time. The information that is provided is not only covering one specific group of women but also women of color and working women, to allow for a greater understanding of how women were impacted during this era.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.

Overview

On September 16, 1920, it seemed like an average day for the busy Wall Street region of New York until a cart that was being pulled by a horse abruptly stopped in front of the United States Assay Office which was near the J. P. Morgan building, and the driver disappeared into the crowd. It did not take long for the cart to explode, leaving metal fragments flying into the crowd and instantly killing thirty people and injuring over an additional hundred people. An additional eight people died due to their injuries and more than $2 million worth of damage was left behind.

When police officers and soldiers arrived on the scene, they were able to identify that the bomb was built with TNT and supported by iron-based weights which were the leading cause of severe injury that afternoon. It was also discovered that the bomber was able to detonate the bomb using a timer. In the following weeks, nobody claimed the responsibility for the bombing. This left the New York Police Department (NYPD) to begin investigating scenarios and various groups that may have been either affiliated with or initiated the bombing. At first, they did not want to classify it as a terrorist attack because it seemed as if there was not a clear target and many innocent bystanders were killed.

One of the motives that were suggested, and is thought to be the actual motive, was that the bombing was an attempted murder of J. P. Morgan himself, however, he was out of the country at the time of the bombing. His son, Junius Spencer Morgan, was injured in the attack, and Morgan’s chief clerk, Thomas Joyce, died of injuries he sustained. Morgan’s Another theory that the NYPD came up with was the bombing was supposed to be a distraction and the culprits were supposed to have robbed the Sub-Treasury Building where there was $900 million in gold bars being held.

After the continuous investigation, the NYPD officially declared that this was an act of terrorism when a letter carrier came upon flyers from a local anarchist and communist group, the “American Anarchist Fighters” which advocated for the release of political prisoners and for the destruction of American capitalism. The possible connection that these flyers held to the bombing was that a few years prior, Italian Anarchasits had published their potential plans for two bombings using similar flyers. If anarchists were behind the attack, those leading the investigation believed that it would likely be Italian anarchist and associate of Sacco and Vanzetti, notorious anarchists, Mario Buda.

Some historians believed it was Buda due to his associates, Sacco and Vanzetti’s recent arrests, and this was Buda’s way of getting back at them as revenge. He was familiar with how to use dynamite and had used time bombs before with sash weights, which was the same exact situation in the Wall Street Bombing. He was assumed to have developed bombs, some of the largest package bombs in fact, for a group called the Galleanists. The Bureau of Investigation, now known as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), were also investigating Italian Anarchist named Luigi Galleani who was the leader of the Galleanists. The Galleanist were followers of Luigi Galleani, who spread propaganda that some violence was necessary and to fight back against capitalist oppression. He fled the country when he caught on that he was being investigated, and even so, there was no solid evidence to connect him to the bombing. Even his own nephew had stated to the police that Buda was involved. At the time, he was living under an alias of Mike Boda. However, the investigation of that lead led to a dead end.

The bombing being done by a radical group such as anarchists, communists or Bolsheviks was the second most believed motive, because at the time, they were known to turn to violence to show their opposition to financial and government institutions in the United States. An academic article titled “Why Violence Matters: Radicalism, Politics, and Class War in the Gilded Age and Progressive Era,” written by Beverly Gage for Michigan State University’s Journal for the Study of Radicalism, dives deep into understanding the issues that led to such violence. While the years of the Gilded Age were roughly from the late 1860s to 1890, and the Progressive Era ranged from 1897 to 1920, the class conflicts that were occurring were still relevant to the 1920s. Based on the evidence provided in the article, the bomb was thoughtfully planned, as the horsedrawn carriage was filled tightly with heavy sash weights and set off during the lunch hour to purposely injure more financial workers as more people would be out of the office at this time.

Another key suspect was a lawyer and tennis professional, Edwin P. Fischer. He had a history of mental illness and predicted to many of his friends and random strangers on the street that an explosion on Wall Street would take place in mid-September. However, he could not be directly linked to the bombing as he was in Canada on the actual date of the bombing and investigators came to the conclusion that it genuinely was a strange coincidence and prediction.

The investigation continued for the next three years and every lead that was followed fizzled out. To this day, no bomber nor a group has claimed responsibility for the bombing that was one of New York’s earliest and worst terrorism cases, with, unfortunately, a pattern of terrorism threats growing exponentially over the following years.

Significance

This event shaped the 1920s because it illustrated the “social unrest” that was taking place in society. Leading up to the bombing, there were many instances of violence and class conflict, specifically between the anarchists and wealthy businessmen. The J.P. Morgan building was a “symbol of American capitalism.” [1] It also holds great importance in history as the wall street bombing was the worst terrorist attack in the history of the United States until the Oklahoma City Bombing attack in 1995, and then subsequently, the terrorist attack on the Twin Towers on September 11, 2001. Author Beverly Gage describes the attitude that Americans hold towards the bombing in her book, The Day Wall Street Exploded. The Story of American In Its First Age of Terrorism, and delves into why so many Americans seem to forget the role that violence frequently played in our nation at the time.

Aside from being the deadliest terrorist attack during the 1920s, forensic evidence was beginning to modernize during this time. Had the terrorist attack occur in more modern times, a culprit would likely have been caught. In general, there were many significant contributions towards crime scene investigation during the 1920s. For example, Calvin Goddard, an American ballistics expert, discovered that when a firearm is shot, it leaves behind a unique marking on the bullet and the case of the bullet when it is fired. His discovery was used to solve a separate massacre in Chicago, Illinois in 1929. However, as the discovery was further mastered, it was learned that this discovery could be applied to crime scenes in which other weapons and tools were used. For example, in the case of the Wall Street Bombing, this technique could have been used to gain more information regarding the shrapnel from the bomb to further understand what type of bomb was used and which groups of people would have access to such materials.

Physical evidence was already tampered with when crews came to clean up the scene prematurely in order to prepare the New York Stock Exchange for “regular hours” the following day. Physical evidence that could have been used to solve the crime was then ruined while they prepared for “business as usual.” This was likely the largest error made during the investigation process, as some form of justice could have been brought to the victim’s families and to those injured, however, the leaders of the New York Stock Exchange solely focused on how to keep the money flowing. In modern times, such a decision would not have been allowed to be made.

In an article for the Smithsonian Magazine, it also has been noted that the proximity of the attacks of the Wall Street Bombing in 1920 and the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, may have a particular relation to the movement of Occupy Wall Street. However, the biggest difference is that the terrorist attacks of 1920 and 2001 were carried out by “anarchists” and used heavy violence, whereas the Occupy Wall Street movement was more of a nonviolent protest. [2] Throughout the 1920s, anger towards the wealthy white man who worked on Wall Street grew, leading to anarchist attacks and assassination attempts. However, this bombing in particular did not hurt the wealthy, it hurt people among the working class. To this day, the missing pieces of limestone from the old J.P. Morgan building have never been repaired, and remain as a symbol of a dreadful terrorist attack that is often forgotten about.

Resources:

“Crime-Scene Investigation and Forensic Sciences.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Accessed May 13, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/topic/police/Crime-scene-investigation-and-forensic-sciences.

Gage, Beverly. “Why Violence Matters: Radicalism, Politics, and Class War in the Gilded Age and Progressive Era.” Journal for the Study of Radicalism 1, no. 1 (2007): 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1353/jsr.2008.0021.

Jensen, Richard Bach. “Capitalists, Cronies, and Their Nemesis.” The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 10, no. 1 (2011): 125-27. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23046630.

King, Gilbert. “Anger and Anarchy on Wall Street.” Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution, October 4, 2011. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/anger-and-anarchy-on-wall-street-96057606/.

Morton, Ella. “9/16: The Forgotten New York Terrorist Attack.” Slate Magazine, September 16, 2014. http://www.slate.com/blogs/atlas_obscura/2014/09/16/the_1920_wall_st_bombing_a_terrorist_attack_on_new_york.html.

Soffer, Jonathan M. The Business History Review 84, no. 2 (2010): 393-95. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20743920.

Ugc. “Wall Street Bombing Scars.” Atlas Obscura. Atlas Obscura, June 24, 2011. https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/wall-street-bombing.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.

Charles Ponzi, born in Lugo Italy on March 3, 1882, was a native of Italy who led a life of crime. According to the Century Foundation, a think tank, while living back in Italy, he would frequently steal from his parents and parish priests. [1] Eventually, he immigrated to Canada for a period of time and then moved permanently to the United States (U.S.) where he gained his notoriety in 1920. Charles Ponzi’s last name, Ponzi, is associated with and named after one of the most famous and well-known financial scams all around the world. However, what do we know about Charles Ponzi and how did the Ponzi scheme originate? Well, in 1919, Ponzi discovered what he saw to be the most brilliant idea – he decided to buy certificates for postage stamps from the International Postal Union and then sell them in another market where the prices are significantly higher. Was he aware that it was likely not going to make investors a lot of money? Most definitely. However, he knew that he could take advantage of investors that were gullible and new to investment in general.

In addition, it has been reported that Ponzi never even purchased any postage certificates. He would simply use money from new investors to somewhat repay the initial investors, and of course, he would not forget to save some for himself. He was only focused on how much he could eventually grow his own money, and with that, he developed what is now known as the Ponzi Scheme. Britannica defines a Ponzi Scheme as a “fraudulent and illegal investment operation that promises quick, easy, and significant returns on investments with little or no risk.” [2] They continue to describe the Ponzi scheme in a structure that is now more commonly referred to as a pyramid scheme. “in which the operator, at the pyramid’s top, acquires a small group of investors that is initially provided with tremendous investment returns via funds secured from the second group of investors.” [3] In only eight months of twelve, in 1920, Charles Ponzi was able to “earn” about $15 million by convincing everyday individuals in finance that he could help them make even more money and that he knew the secret to true wealth. He was able to use his words to persuade his followers in trusting him with more and more money. He was worried that citizens of the public were beginning to catch onto him as he was not trying to hide his newfound wealth. According to the Century Foundation, he was living in a very large mansion. With time, he decided that hiring a public relations expert would be the best move. [4] However, it was the same public relations expert that tipped off the authorities to Ponzi’s fraud. Newspaper reporters also began to pick up on pieces of the scam as word was starting to float around among concerned investors that were getting tired of waiting on their investment. Eventually, it was the Boston Post that fully exposed Charles Ponzi and his scheme.

According to Britannica, Ponzi scammed and essentially stole millions of dollars from thousands of New England residents, primarily from 1919 through 1920 simply by creating a plan based on the sale of European postage stamps. He initially began with only focusing on a small group of investors, however, as word spread of this new investment opportunity with great promises, hundreds of investors began contacting Ponzi on their own accord to try and get a piece of the pie. His highest peak of the scam, in his eyes one of his biggest accomplishments, he raised $1 million in only three hours. [5] However, nine months later, his fraud was discovered. As investors awaited their promised higher investment, there was only $30 worth of stamps, for which Ponzi collected $15 million from individuals. After this was discovered by the investors, Ponzi was arrested in 1920 and faced heavy prison time after being charged with multiple counts of fraud and larceny. During his time in prison, he tried contacting as many investors as he could, apologizing for his “mistakes” and ensuring to them that he would make it up to them when he was released. It is doubtful that Ponzi actually regretted his actions, instead, he was trying to retain any relationships he possibly could with these investors so he could scam them once again. The United States Immigration Authorities did not want to give him a second chance however and instead deported him back to Italy. Ironically, back in Italy, he served as a treasury official for Mussolini’s fascist movement until his reputation was discovered. He tried to salvage what he could of his reputation and fled to Brazil until he lost his job and subsequently, all of his money. [6] in an article for the Wall Street Journal, titled, “The Original Ponzi Schemer,” the author discusses the psychology and thought process behind Charles Ponzi, describing his actions as a result of “status anxiety,” and wanting to both be and live among the wealthy. [7]

Charles Ponzi was the most prominent criminal that followed through with this scam, thus it is named after him. However, according to The Times, the scheme that is known as the Ponzi scheme did not only begin with Charles Ponzi. It first surfaced in 1879 by Sarah Howe in Boston after she created what was known as the “Ladies Deposit” to provide a space for women to make investments. Similar to Charles Ponzi, she promised the women she worked with that they would receive a much higher return on investment, insisting that their initial investment would double in under a year, but that never materialized. As word of her promises spread throughout Boston, the reporters for the Boston Daily Advertiser began following the numbers and ended up revealing her scam. According to The Times, she did eventually get caught and proven guilty, receiving three years in prison. However, she clearly did not learn her lesson because as soon as she got out, she carried out a nearly identical scam for another two years before she got caught and punished once again.

Modern-Day Ponzi Schemes

Even though there is a lot of information regarding Ponzi Schemes and signs to look out for that have been published both in books and online, Ponzi Schemes still continue to happen in modern times. In 1997, numerous Ponzi Schemes which took place in Albania collapsed, sparking nationwide rioting and rebellion, which eventually developed into a major crisis. [8] The most relevant and largest Ponzi Scheme to date was run by Bernard Larence “Bernie” Madoff, born April 29, 1938, in Queens, New York, who defrauded thousands of investors out of more than hundreds of billions of dollars for nearly twenty years. When investors chose to invest in his Ponzi Scheme, they felt that they could trust him due to his seemingly respectable reputation and experience in working for NASDAQ, an American financial corporation and stock exchange, in the 1990s. Another reason many investors were inclined to trust him due to his insistence that he used a method that was legitimate. He held the majority of his client’s funds in bank accounts and would fund or repay investors that were wanting to “cash out” with funds from other investors, similar to Ponzi. However, it was not until 2008, when the market crashed, that he could no longer keep up. With that, he decided to confide in his sons regarding the scam he had been running, and they notified authorities. The last recorded amount being held in the bank account was $64.8 billion in funds from his client’s around the time that he was caught. In 2009, Madoff actually pled guilty to his crimes and was charged with 11 federal felony counts, and received a sentence of 150 years in prison. [9]

With society continuing to move towards a more digital platform for all of our needs, it is important to be able to spot the signs of a potential Ponzi or pyramid scheme as they are only going to become more common due to the greater accessibility and reach they now have online. As seen in the case of Charles Ponzi, these scam artists will purposely try to play towards an individual’s anxiety and fear of missing out. They will try to be very picky as to who they will allow to contribute an investment towards their scam, which leads to other individuals, even those that may be suspicious of the ‘investment opportunity, to feel like they may miss out on a million-dollar opportunity. However, it seems that in the case of the Ponzi Schemes, history is repeating itself. It is imminent that there will still continue to be new Ponzi Schemes created and those that are still being kept under wraps will continue to be run. Charles Ponzi has left behind a legacy, and while not necessarily a positive one, it will forever impact the financial sector. Ponzi Schemes are still seen as “white-collar” crimes that tend to get a blind eye because they usually involve individuals of higher status and wealth, which is another aspect of the criminal justice system that could use some further reform.

Footnotes:
[1] The Century Foundation et al., “Who Was Charles Ponzi?,” The Century Foundation, March 7, 2016, https://tcf.org/content/commentary/who-was-charles-ponzi/?agreed=1.
[2]“Ponzi Scheme,” Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, inc.), https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ponzi-scheme#ref1111939.
[3] Ibid.
[4] The Century Foundation et al., “Who Was Charles Ponzi?”
[5] “Ponzi Scheme,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
[6] The Century Foundation et al., “Who Was Charles Ponzi?”
[7] Daniel Akst, “The Original Ponzi Schemer,” The Wall Street Journal (Dow Jones & Company, October 15, 2020), https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-original-ponzi-schemer-11602778470.
[8] “In Ponzi We Trust,” Smithsonian.com (Smithsonian Institution, December 1, 1998), https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/in-ponzi-we-trust-64016168/.
[9] Adam Hayes, “The Bernie Madoff Story,” Investopedia (Investopedia, April 22, 2021), https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bernard-madoff.asp.

Resources:

Akst, Daniel. “The Original Ponzi Schemer.” The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, October 15, 2020. https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-original-ponzi-schemer-11602778470.

The Century Foundation, Richard D. Kahlenberg, Ann O’Leary and Julie Kashen, Casey Berkovitz, Anna Bernstein, — By Rebecca Vallas, — By David Brady, — By Richard D. Kahlenberg, — By Amanda Novello, and — By Ann O’Leary and Julie Kashen. “Who Was Charles Ponzi?” The Century Foundation, March 7, 2016. https://tcf.org/content/commentary/who-was-charles-ponzi/?agreed=1.

Hayes, Adam. “The Bernie Madoff Story.” Investopedia. Investopedia, April 22, 2021. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bernard-madoff.asp.

“In Ponzi We Trust.” Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution, December 1, 1998. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/in-ponzi-we-trust-64016168/.

“Ponzi Scheme.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Accessed April 30, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ponzi-scheme#ref1111939.

Weisman, Steve. “The History of Ponzi Schemes Goes Deeper Than You Think.” Time. Time, August 12, 2020. https://time.com/5877434/first-ponzi-scheme/.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.

Biographical Overview

Ida B. Wells (1862-1931) was born during the Civil War Era into slavery on July 16, 1862, in Holly Springs, Mississippi. After the end of the Civil War, Wells’ parents become very active in politics, which clearly left an impression on Ida. She attended higher education at Rust College until both of her parents, unfortunately, passed away after getting sick from Yellow Fever. She was forced to drop out of school to move back home to take care of her siblings. They moved to Memphis, Tennessee where she worked as an educator. [1]

After growing up in slavery and seeing the blatant mistreatment of African Americans, Ida B. Wells worked very hard to be an advocate. One of her first occurrences with discrimination as an adult was in 1884, Wells was removed from a first-class train, even though she had fully paid for a ticket. She sued the train company and took her case to court. She did win on the local level, but when it was appealed and brought to the federal court, it was overturned. According to a biography of Ida B. Well’s on Britannica, three of Wells’ close friends was a victim of a lynching by a white mob, which led Wells’ advocacy to expand into white supremacy violence. [2] She later wrote a piece on the lynchings of African Americans which greatly angered the local citizens in Memphis, Tennesse. Her teaching contract was not renewed and she began to receive numerous threats to her life which forced her to move herself and her family to Chicago Illinois. [3] She began touring the United States lecturing in favor of African American rights and began organizing anti-lynching organizations. [4] She became Ida B. Wells-Barnett in 1895, after marrying Chicago lawyer, Ferdinand L. Barnett, and taking on his name in addition to keeping her own.

Ida B. Wells led multiple women’s organizations such as founding the National Association of Colored Women’s Club and she was present for the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The purpose of the National Association of Colored Women’s Club was “created to address issues dealing with civil rights and women’s suffrage.” [5] The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was created in response to the consistent violence that was being carried out against people of color throughout the United States. At the time it was, and still remains, one of the largest and most influential civil rights organizations in the United States.

Other notable organizations Ida B. Wells worked on was the founding of the Negro Fellowship League, an organization that assisted colored people migrating from the South to the North. She also founded Chicago’s Alpha Suffrage Club which was one of the first Black women suffrage groups. Ida B Wells’ took on other leadership roles during her course of advocacy for African American’s rights such as from 1913 to 1916 when she worked for the Chicago Municipal Court as a probation officer.

She also greatly contributed to the women’s suffrage movement as she began the Alpha Suffrage Club in 1913. Ida B. Wells was motivated to begin such an organization after seeing the hardships African American women faced and the lack of education they had to actively partake in politics and following along with the electoral process. She created these clubs in hope of encouraging other African American women to join her in her passion for politics and provide a space for African American women to become engaged and educated about politics.

In Washington D.C. on March 3, 1913, there were 8,000 women that gathered to march for a woman’s right to vote. However, though marching for the same goal, Ida B. Wells and other African American women were forced to march in the very back, they were not allowed near the white women. In an article for PBS, the reasoning for this was not only discriminatory but also political as one of the main oppositions to women suffrage at the time, was the “fear” or “concern” of African Americans gaining more rights, such as African American women gaining the right to vote. Initially, after learning this news, Ida B. Wells did not feel comfortable being a part of the march, however, she joined and moved along. It was not until the march was halfway done, that she emerged from the very back of the parade to the very front and marched in between two white women suffrage supporters. The PBS article quoted a saying that Ida B. Wells pinned as her motto, “One had better die fighting against injustice than die like a dog or a rat in a trap.”

Ida B. Wells passed away on March 25, 1931, of kidney disease in Chicago Illinois, leaving behind many legacies of advocacies such as women’s rights, African American’s rights, and urban reform.

Significance in 1920 – Women Gain the Right to Vote

While Ida B. Wells began her activism several years prior to 1920, her accomplishments were crucial to the ratification of the nineteenth amendment. However, it should be noted that just because the nineteenth amendment was passed and women were technically granted the right to vote, it does not mean that her work was done. When looking at the women’s rights movement, many tend to remember white women, such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton or Susan B. Anthony, which are amazing in their own way and contributed many accomplishments to the women’s rights movement, however, African American women such as Ida B. Wells, was forced to fight two times harder as she was not just fighting for gender equality, but she was also fighting for racial equality. Many women AND men were left in the dust after the nineteenth amendment: those of color. Many Southern politicians hated the idea of millions of people of color would be granting voting rights to people of color after the fifteenth amendment had opened up voting to African American men. Additional obstacles were implemented for both women of color and women, in general, to try and prevent them from voting, however, deliberate racism was the most significant hurdle that was the driving force.

It was announced that the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution had been ratified on August 26, 1920. It stated, “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.” [6] However, many ignored what was so clearly stated in the Constitution and there were many women that were trying to be indirectly stopped from voting, African American women and women of color. Local governments in northern states had tried to pass laws and policies to prevent the disenfranchisement of African Americans. However, it is important to note that it was not only African American women that were experiencing difficulties voting, but it was also African American men that experienced this hardship, as certain places still had poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and the intimidation and threats of being lynched.

African American women did not let the obstacles deter them from trying to vote in the Fall 1920 elections. They gathered together to go to the polls but many were turned away by polling officials due to failing a constitutional test, according to an article written by National Geographic. Those that were turned away were from southern states such as Georgia and Alabama. However, African American women that were residing in states such as California, New York, and Illinois, were able to vote. This was likely due to an argument that southern states claimed that “all individuals” must be registered to vote at least six months prior to an election, however, the ratification of the nineteenth amendment happened sooner than that. Thus, this disqualified many women in southern states. In more northern states such as California and New York, women already had the right to vote prior to it becoming federal law.

Ida B. Wells spoke out against the racism of the women’s suffrage movement, specifically calling out white women that would only discuss voting rights for women in general, forgetting that the majority of people of color were consistently discriminated against. Voting rights being granted to women, specifically only some women, in 1920 is an example of intersectionality. This is a concept that was penned by Kimberle Crenshaw in 1989 which speaks to how an issue cannot just be looked at as between men and women, but it is further divided to people of color. While Wells’ activism took place many years to Crenshaw, the concept of what they were fighting for, the acknowledgment that women of color are more oppressed than white women, was very similar.

To celebrate her impact on the women’s suffrage and anti-lynching movement, a large mosaic was installed on the floor at Union Station in Washington D.C. as part of an exhibit in August 2020. The mosaic was created by visual artist Helen Marshall. The mosaic is made up of thousands of smaller photos of various women who fought for women’s suffrage. During the 1920s, Wells continued to advocate for women’s rights and fighting against lynching African Americans. For her work for the anti-lynching movement, she was posthumously awarded a Pulitzer prize as well in 2020.

Footnotes:

[1] “Ida B. Wells-Barnett,” Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., March 21, 2021), https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ida-B-Wells-Barnett.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Ibid.
[5] “Ida B. Wells,” Biography.com (A&E Networks Television, January 6, 2021), https://www.biography.com/activist/ida-b-wells.
[6] Martha S. Jones, “For Black Women, the 19th Amendment Didn’t End Their Fight to Vote,” History (National Geographic, May 3, 2021), https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/black-women-continued-fighting-for-vote-after-19th-amendment.

References:

Brown, DeNeen L. “Ida B. Wells Gets Her Due as a Black Suffragist Who Rejected Movement’s Racism.” The Washington Post. WP Company, September 18, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/08/25/mosaic-ida-b-wells-black-suffragist-union-station/.

Brown, DeNeen L. “Ida B. Wells Gets Her Due as a Black Suffragist Who Rejected Movement’s Racism.” The Washington Post. WP Company, September 18, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/08/25/mosaic-ida-b-wells-black-suffragist-union-station/.

“Ida B Wells : The Advocate.” PBS. Public Broadcasting Service. Accessed May 13, 2021. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/vote-ida-b-wells-advocate/.

“Ida B. Wells-Barnett.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., March 21, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ida-B-Wells-Barnett.

“Ida B. Wells.” Biography.com. A&E Networks Television, January 6, 2021. https://www.biography.com/activist/ida-b-wells.

Jones, Martha S. “For Black Women, the 19th Amendment Didn’t End Their Fight to Vote.” History. National Geographic, May 3, 2021. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/black-women-continued-fighting-for-vote-after-19th-amendment.

“A Noble Endeavor: Ida B. Wells-Barnett and Suffrage (U.S. National Park Service).” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior. Accessed May 13, 2021. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/a-noble-endeavor-ida-b-wells-barnett-and-suffrage.htm.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.

I do not know too much about the 1920’s such as specifics, however, I do know that it was currently referred to as the “Roaring Twenties” or the “Jazz Age.” Industrialization was increasing rapidly as there was a greater circulation of the production of steel and automobiles during this decade. Women that were referred to as “flappers” became a significant symbol of this era. The biggest event that took place during this era was the Constitution finally granting women the right to vote in 1920. Overall, this decade helped boost women’s rights. Most of my knowledge on this era stems from F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel, “The Great Gatsby,” which portrayed the extremes of the 1920s illustrating large social gatherings and great wealth among many individuals that attended these parties.

At various events, a dance known as the Charleston, which is a highly energetic ballroom dance that is somewhat similar to swing dancing, the jive and the Lindy Hop became extremely popular. As someone who used to dance ballroom, it is easy to see why it was such a favorite. During the 1920s however, when it was becoming more popular, it was banned in many areas because it was supposedly too sexual for women to dance as their legs were visible during the twists and knee kicks.

As mentioned earlier, women that developed a style known as flappers emerged during this era. A woman that dressed as a flapper was one that was pushing the limits for women as a group, by wearing bolder makeup and more revealing outfits than what was typically expected from a woman. This illustrated the independence that women were yearning for, and was a way for women to break through the usual restrictions that were imposed on women.

Another common term used to refer to the 1920s was the Jazz Age. Jazz Bands began more prominently in heavily-populated areas such as New York City and Chicago Illinois. The increasing use of radios and phonograph records allowed for greater accessibility of the emerging genres of music, such as jazz to the general public. Jazz music is a combination of African and European music, which in the United States, seemed to have originated in New Orleans, Louisiana. In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel, “The Great Gatsby” the term the “Jazz Age” was coined, as it depicted many young socialites frequenting events that had dancing to Jazz Music.

Another important event of the 1920s was the Prohibition that was officially ratified by the Constitution in 1919. The eighteenth amendment of the Constitution banned the sale of liquors that were more than 0.5% alcohol. This did not completely halt liquor sales but rather caused many to sneak around and sell liquor through illegal speakeasies. These were typically run by mobs and gangsters such as Al Capone, an infamous Chicago gangster. Many supported this ban as drinking was an action that many did not support for both religious and cultural reasons. Drinking was seen as dirty and many blamed immigrants for being alcoholics and “dirtying” the city.

Resources:
History.com Editors. “The Roaring Twenties History.” History.com. A&E Television Networks, April 14, 2010. https://www.history.com/topics/roaring-twenties/roaring-twenties-history.

afarallo

Angelina Farallo is a Law and Society Major at Ramapo College of New Jersey. Ever since she was in elementary school, history has always been her favorite subject. During her studies at Ramapo College, she has studied how the modernization of technology has affected various industries such as the law, and in this case history which is what drew her to take this Digital Humanities course.